The concept of types and causes of unemployment economy. Unemployment as a socio-economic phenomenon

Unemployment: types and socio-economic consequences

Introduction

The sphere of labor is an important, multifaceted area of economic and social public life. It covers both the labor market and its direct use in social production. On the labor market, the value of the labor force is assessed, the conditions for its employment are determined, including the amount of wages, working conditions, the possibility of obtaining education, professional growth, job security, etc. The labor market reflects the main trends in the dynamics of employment, its basic structure, that is, in the social division of labor, as well as the mobility of the labor force, the scale and dynamics of unemployment.

The gradual transition to market relations being carried out in Russia is associated with great difficulties and the emergence of many socio-economic problems. One of them is the problem of employment, which is inextricably linked with people and their production activities.

The specifics of Russian unemployment were influenced by a number of factors that are associated with the transition from a command system to a market one and a difficult demographic situation.

The market presents and requires a completely different level of labor relations at each enterprise. But effective mechanisms for the use of labor resources have not yet been created, new employment problems are emerging and old ones are aggravating, unemployment is growing.

Our reality is mass poverty and social vulnerability of the general population.

Unemployment is both a macroeconomic and microeconomic problem that has the most direct and strongest impact on every person. Losing a job for most people means a decline in living standards and causes serious psychological trauma.

The most threatening factor in the growth of unemployment and the mass release of people from production is the collapse of inter-farm ties and the curtailment, for this reason, of production at large and super-large enterprises of the first division. Gap of horizontal economic ties: violation of contractual obligations for the supply of products is accompanied by a decrease in production volumes, a reduction in the number of jobs and workers. The change in the system of government and the political structure of society is accompanied by a reduction in the number of people employed in senior positions in state administration apparatuses, as well as in the army. A specific type of unemployment arises among highly qualified persons who are professionally unsuitable for use in the lower economic levels of the production and non-production spheres.

The specifics of Russian unemployment were influenced by a number of factors related to the transition from a command system to a market one and a difficult demographic situation.

The features of unemployment in the Russian Federation are that hidden unemployment still exists, the features of the labor market at the regional level have not been and are not taken into account at the moment, conditions have not been created for the normal functioning of the labor market in the country as a whole, the problem of the loss of qualified frames.

The object of study of the course work is the Russian labor market.

The subject of the research is unemployment, its types, the problem of unemployment in Russia.

The purpose of this course work is to analyze and study the problem of unemployment, ways to overcome it and regulate it, consider the possibilities for improvement, as well as the development of employment in the Russian labor market.

To address this issue, a number of issues need to be addressed:

Consider the concepts of the labor market and unemployment;

Make an analysis of unemployment and the current state of the Russian labor market;

Consider the socio-economic consequences of unemployment;

Conduct research on ways to reduce unemployment and regulate employment in Russia.

This course work consists of three chapters. The first part is devoted to the consideration of unemployment as a socio-economic phenomenon, the theoretical aspects of the functioning of the labor market. It discloses the concepts of employment and unemployment, as well as the causes and types of unemployment.

The second chapter analyzes the labor market in Russia. The number of the economically active population, the composition and number of the unemployed by industry have been studied, as well as the socio-economic consequences of unemployment and its main problems.

The third chapter will reveal the ways of regulating unemployment and employment in Russia, as well as the factors of overcoming and the system of protection against long-term unemployment.

1. Unemployment as a socio-economic phenomenon

.1 The concept of unemployment and employment

Unemployment is a socio-economic phenomenon involving the lack of work for people who make up the economically active population.

Unemployment flourishes during the economic downturn in the country with a reduction in the number of jobs. But even under normal conditions of economic development, there is unemployment - this is the so-called "natural" unemployment - unemployment in the range of 4 - 5%, which can be considered economically acceptable. The main causes of unemployment are: classical theory - high wages; Keynesianism - low level of demand; monetarism - insufficient flexibility of the labor market.

The main parameters characterizing the state of employment are: economically active and inactive population, employed, unemployed, unemployment rate. Directly quantitatively, unemployment is measured by the following parameters:

The unemployment rate - the share of officially registered unemployed in the total labor force;

Duration of unemployment - time spent as unemployed.

Unemployment rate - the ratio of the number of unemployed of a certain age group to the number of economically active population of the corresponding age group (in percent) .

The duration of unemployment (the duration of the job search) is the period of time during which a person, being unemployed, is looking for a job using any means.

According to Russian legislation, the unemployed are able-bodied citizens who do not have work and earnings, are registered with the employment service in order to find a suitable job, are looking for work and are ready to start it. At the same time, payments of severance pay and retained average earnings to citizens dismissed in connection with the liquidation of an organization or the termination of activity by an individual entrepreneur, a reduction in the number or staff of employees of an organization, an individual entrepreneur, are not taken into account as earnings.

There are a lot of different processes going on in the labor market. Against the background of a general trend towards development, it can be characterized by periods of stagnation (lat. stagnatio - immobility, from stagnum - stagnant water) - a state of the economy characterized by stagnation of production and trade over a long period, recessions and ups. But the labor market must be balanced. It should create opportunities for the economically active population to be in demand, to receive certain guarantees and protection.

In order to decide on employment policy issues, it is necessary first of all to find out what employment is from an economic and social standpoint.

Employment is the activity of the able-bodied population to create a social product or national income.

It is necessary to distinguish between global (general) and economic employment. Global employment includes, in addition to economic employment, studies in general education, secondary specialized, higher educational institutions; housekeeping and raising children; care for the elderly and disabled; participation in public authorities, public organizations; service in the armed forces.

Economic employment implies the participation of the able-bodied population in social production, including the service sector. This type of employment is of paramount importance, its relationship with other activities, especially with study. The economic potential of society, the level and quality of life, the socio-economic and spiritual progress of each country depend on it. Economic employment has the following characteristics:

-socially useful activity of people in the production of material goods and services (material, spiritual, cultural, social services), due to which employment serves to satisfy personal and social needs;

-providing activities with a specific workplace, this allows the worker to realize his physical and spiritual abilities for work, hence the importance for employment is a balance;

labor resources with the number of jobs in quantitative and qualitative aspects;

employment is a source of income in the form of wages, profits and in other forms, where income can be expressed in cash and in kind.

Registered in state institutions of the employment service include able-bodied citizens who do not have work and earnings (labor income), living in the territory of the Russian Federation, registered with the employment service at the place of residence in order to find a suitable job, looking for a job and ready to start it.

Thus, employment and unemployment are socio-economic phenomena that have a direct impact on the production of the social product and national income.

1.2 Main types of unemployment

In the economy, various classifications of unemployment are distinguished, it is distinguished by type depending on the causes of occurrence. There are the following types of unemployment:

Involuntary unemployment - a type of unemployment that occurs if an able-bodied citizen can and wants to work at a given level of wages, but cannot find a job;

2. Voluntary unemployment - a type of unemployment associated with the unwillingness of able-bodied citizens to work. For example, in the context of wage cuts. Its scope and duration are different: depending on professions, skill level of the worker;

Registered unemployment - a type of unemployment in which the unemployed population is looking for work and is officially registered;

4. Marginal unemployment - a type of unemployment, in which the weakly protected sections of the population (youth, women, the disabled) and the social lower classes remain unemployed;

5. Cyclical unemployment - a type of unemployment that is caused by repeated recessions in production in the country: cyclical unemployment is inherent in countries that are experiencing a general economic recession. Most of the country's firms are experiencing difficulties, as a result of which mass layoffs begin almost everywhere and at the same time;

Seasonal unemployment - a type of unemployment that depends on changes in the level of economic activity during the year, is typical for some sectors of the economy. It is possible to single out seasonal unemployment, which is associated with unequal production volumes performed by some industries in different periods of time (seasons), that is, in some months the demand for labor in these industries grows, unemployment decreases here, in others it decreases, in this case unemployment increases. The industries that are characterized by seasonal changes in production volumes include: construction, agriculture, etc.;

Structural unemployment is a type of unemployment caused by changes in the structure of demand for labor, provided that there is a structural mismatch between the qualifications of the unemployed and the demand for vacant jobs: structural unemployment is caused by a large-scale restructuring of the economy, changes in the structure of demand for consumer goods and production technology, the elimination of obsolete industries and professions. Structural unemployment is also related to the fact that the market for goods and services is constantly changing: new goods appear that displace old ones that are not in demand. In this regard, enterprises are reconsidering the structure of their resources and, in particular, labor resources. The introduction of new technologies leads either to the dismissal of part of the workforce, or to retraining of personnel. As a result of scientific and technological progress, technological changes, the structure of demand for labor is also changing. The need for some types of professions is reduced, while other specialties disappear altogether. But there is a demand for new professions that did not previously exist. The emergence of structural unemployment means that many people will have to learn new professions; it is impossible to avoid structural unemployment. This is due to the fact that technological progress all the time gives rise to new products, technologies and even entire industries. People with professions that are no longer needed in the same number are out of work, replenishing the ranks of the unemployed;

Frictional unemployment exists even in countries experiencing rapid economic growth. Its reason is that an employee dismissed from his enterprise or left it of his own free will takes some time to find a new job that should suit him according to the type of activity and the level of payment. Even if there are such places on the labor market, it usually takes some time to find them. Some people feel capable of doing more difficult and higher paying jobs and are looking for it, others are convinced that they do not meet the requirements of their workplace and should look for jobs with lower pay: in a free market society there is always a certain number of people who, for various reasons, are looking for yourself a more suitable job. In addition, there are always unemployed people in the labor market who are looking for work for the first time (youth, women who have raised children).

Economics considers frictional unemployment to be normal and not cause for concern. Moreover, frictional unemployment is simply inevitable in a normally organized economy. The growth of frictional unemployment can be caused by a number of reasons: people's ignorance of the possibility of finding a job in their specialty and with a satisfactory level of pay in specific firms; factors that objectively reduce labor mobility. Frictional unemployment is higher in those countries whose citizens prefer to live all their lives in the same locality, that is, they are characterized by reduced mobility. With this way of life (which is also typical for many Russians), the flow of labor between regions is reduced;

Hidden unemployment, which is characteristic of the domestic economy. Its essence is that in the conditions of incomplete use of resources by enterprises caused by the economic crisis, enterprises do not dismiss employees, but transfer them either to a reduced working time (part-time work week or working day), or send them on forced unpaid leave. Formally, such workers cannot be recognized as unemployed, but in fact they are.

Having studied the problems of unemployment, we draw the following conclusions: frictional and structural unemployment are normal phenomena and do not pose a threat to the development of the country. Moreover, without them, development is simply impossible. After all, if all workers are busy, then how to create new firms or expand the production of goods that are in high demand on the market, in addition, the presence of unemployment makes people afraid of losing their jobs and encourages them to work more productively and efficiently. From these positions, unemployment can be called an incentive to better work. That is why full employment in most developed countries of the world is understood as the absence of cyclical unemployment in the presence of frictional and structural unemployment, i.e. when unemployment in a country corresponds to its natural rate.

1.3 Causes of unemployment

The unemployed registered with the state employment service include persons who are unemployed, looking for a job and, in accordance with the established procedure, have received the official status of unemployed in the state employment service.

The structure of unemployment by its causes includes three main groups of the labor force:

1)those who lost their jobs as a result of dismissal, as well as those who voluntarily left their jobs;

2)who entered the labor market after a break;

)newcomers to the labor market.

These problems, combined with a decline in production, unfavorable shifts in the sectoral structure, a decline in living standards, social stratification of the population, and an increase in negative demographic trends, have created a range of new problems in the field of employment. Intertwined and complementing each other, they have a significant impact on the behavior of employers and employees.

In accordance with the opinion of experts, the following factors will contribute to the increase in the number of unemployed in the Russian Federation:

suppression of unemployment (early retirement);

partial involuntary unemployment (shortened working day, shortened working week, longer holidays);

conditional unemployment (non-permanent work);

temporary unemployment (maternity leave, caring for a child, for disabled children, seriously ill and old people, leave without pay);

potential unemployment (due to disability);

unemployment in connection with the release of women from production with harmful and dangerous working conditions;

structural unemployment (reorientation, closure, bankruptcy);

involuntary unemployment (due to the lack of raw materials, energy, components, which led to the shutdown of the enterprise);

unemployment due to demobilization, transfer to the reserve and restructuring in the army;

unemployment in closed cities due to conversion and factory cities due to plant shutdowns;

primary unemployment (graduates of schools, vocational schools, technical schools, universities);

unemployment of young people who were expelled from educational institutions or who stopped studying at their own request;

unemployment due to insufficient professional qualifications;

subjective unemployment due to unwillingness or inability to retrain and get a different profession;

unemployment due to forced migration (refugees)

unemployment, returning from places of deprivation of liberty;

unemployment of those who, after a long break, want to resume work;

unemployment due to natural disasters and extreme situations (accidents, earthquakes, floods, destruction of enterprises and institutions as a result of explosions or military operations).

The general conclusion on the question of the causes of unemployment is that the market form of economic organization itself inevitably gives rise to unemployment, because it inevitably presupposes:

ruin of a part of the enterprises;
accumulation of capital in the conditions of technical and scientific progress;
disproportionality in the dynamics of consumption, savings and investment;
cyclical nature of production;
the imperfection of competition in the modern market in general and, above all, in the labor market.

2.Problems of unemployment in the Russian Federation

.1 Analysis of the labor market of the Russian Federation

Economically active population (labor force) - persons of the age established for measuring the economic activity of the population, who are considered employed or unemployed in the period under review. The economically active population includes data on the employed and the unemployed, obtained from the population survey on employment issues. Measurement of economic activity of the population is carried out for persons aged 15-72 years.

Data on the average annual number of people employed in the economy are formed for the main job of the civilian population once a year when compiling the balance of labor resources based on information from organizations, materials from a sample survey of the population on employment issues, and data from executive authorities. The average annual number of employees includes working foreign citizens, both permanently residing and temporarily residing on the territory of the Russian Federation.

The difference of our labor market lies in the presence in it of administrative, legal and economic restrictions that still prevent the free sale of labor on the most favorable terms for the majority of workers. This is the presence of registration, which formally replaced propiska, and the absence of a real housing market with its huge deficit, and the underdevelopment of mechanisms for state regulation and social support in the field of employment

In 2003, the share of the non-state sector of the economy already accounted for 61% of the total number of employees. In a competitive environment, enterprises will strive to optimize the composition and number of employees. In turn, employees will be able to find a job on the most favorable terms.

All of this can only be realized by creating a truly competitive environment, de-registration that hinders the free movement of labor, creating a housing market and an effective recruitment facilitation system.

Let us analyze the economically active population by comparing the data for 2005. and 2010 (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 Economically active population

200520062007200820092010Тысяч человекЭкономически активное население - всего734327416775159757577565875448в том числе:Занятые в экономике681696885570571709656928569803Безработные526353124589479263735645Мужчины372743780838103386803852738578в том числе:Занятые в экономике347103499635650361393505935500Безработные272528122453254234683078Женщины361583666037056368763713136870в том числе:Занятые в экономике336203416034920346263422634303Безработные253825002136225029052567

After analyzing, we can conclude that by 2010 the economically active population amounted to 75448 thousand people, which is 2016 thousand people more than in 2005. Among them in 2010, 69,803 thousand people. are employed in the economy, and 5645 thousand people. are unemployed; the number of men who are unemployed is 3078 thousand people, women - 2567 thousand people, which is 511 thousand people. less than men.

The sectoral structure of the employed population has also changed, as shown in Table 2.2. Let us analyze the average annual number of people employed in the economy by type of economic activity, comparing the data for 2005 and 2010.

Table 2.2 Average annual number of people employed in the economy by type of economic activity

Thousand человекВ процентах к итогу200520092010200520092010Всего в экономике667926734367567100100100по видам экономической деятельности:сельское хозяйство, охота и лесное хозяйство73816580646511,19,89,6рыболовство, рыбоводство1381411380,20,20,2добыча полезных ископаемых10519969941,61,51,5обрабатывающие производства11506103851042317,215,415,4Производ. and rasp. electricity, gas and water1912190019092.92.82.8construction4916526752467.47.87.8Op. and roses. trade; car repair. funds, household products and personal items. from week im., rent and provision of services4879521052547.37.87.8 pack. and ensuring military security; 3458378638005.25.65.6 and provision of social services4548471747276.87.07.0

From table 2.2 it follows that in 2005 compared to 2010, the proportion of people employed in agriculture, hunting and the forestry industry decreased noticeably by 1.5% (9.6% - 11.1% = - 1.5% ), manufacturing - by 1.8% (15.4% - 17.2% = - 1.8%).

The share of people employed in wholesale and retail trade, repair of vehicles, household goods and personal items increased by 1.5%, public administration and military security - by 0.5%, construction - by 0.4%, in the hotel business and restaurants - by 0.2%, in financial activities - by 0.4%, in the provision of social services - by 0.2%, i.e. mainly in the non-production sector.

We also consider the structure of the employed population by sex and age (Table 2.3).

Table 2.3. Distribution of the number of people employed in the economy by sex and age groups in 2010

ВсегомужчиныженщиныЗанятые в экономике - всего100100100в том числе в возрасте, лет:до 201,11,40,820 - 249,610,58,725 - 2913,614,512,730 - 3412,713,012,435 - 3912,212,012,340 - 4411,711,212,245 - 4914,313,315,350 - 5412,811,814,055 - 598,18 .47.760 - 723.83.83.8

From table 2.3 it follows that there are more men employed in the economy than women at the following ages:

1)up to 20 years - by 0.6% (0.8% - 1.4% = -0.6%);

2)20-24 years old - by 1.8% (8.7% - 10.5% = - 1.8%);

)25-29 years old - by 0.9% (12.7% - 13.6% = - 0.9%);

)30-34 years old - by 0.6% (12.4% - 13.0% = - 0.6%);

)55-59 years old - by 0.7% (7.7% - 8.4% = - 0.7%).

The employment of women prevails over the employment of men at the following ages:

1) 35-39 years old - by 0.3%;

2) 40-44 years old - by 1%;

)45-49 years - by 2%;

)50-54 years - by 2.2%.

Thus, after analyzing the data of the tables, we can draw the following conclusions: the most able-bodied age for men in 2010 is 20-24 years, and for women - 50-54 years; in the labor market in 2010, the trends of previous years were preserved, compared to 2005, the number of people employed in the economy increased, and the number of unemployed also increased by 382,000 people.

2.2 Main unemployment problems in the Russian Federation

According to 2010 data, in the total number of unemployed in the country, men are 3078 thousand people, women 2567 thousand people.

Today the situation in Russia is extremely unstable, it is women who make up the majority of the Russian poor. They are the most discriminated against in employment and the labor market.

This is how the average portrait of an unemployed woman is presented: over forty, having a higher or secondary specialized education and fired as a result of being released or of her own free will. One in three have minor children. One in six was an engineer or technician. One in eight is in pre-retirement age. It is necessary to earn a living - this is the main priority of finding a job. Women's claims to wages are more pronounced than men's; women began to refuse work due to the lack of legal and social guarantees, especially in private entrepreneurship. To the old unresolved problems, such as the low level of qualifications and wages, new ones have been added - the deterioration in the structure of vacancies and vacant positions.

To reduce the severity of the problem of women's employment, the following objectives of the work are defined:

) increase the competitiveness of women in the labor market through retraining;

) to form a bank of vacancies for women;

) create additional jobs;

) create conditions for employment in temporary and public works;

) implement social adaptation programs .

Another well-defined stable segment of the labor market, characterized by a stable growth in labor supply, is the unemployed youth.

The youth labor market has its own specifics:

Firstly, it is characterized by the instability of supply and demand, due to the variability of the orientation of young people, their socio-professional uncertainty. The situation is aggravated by the aggravation of the social problems of young people associated with a radical change in the socio-cultural and political conditions for the development of the individual, which entails increasing difficulties in self-determination of young people, including in professional terms.

Secondly, the youth labor market is characterized by low competitiveness in comparison with other age groups. Young people are most at risk of losing their jobs or not being employed. Employment opportunities for new labor entering the labor market for the first time are shrinking. Restriction of demand in the labor market reduces the employment opportunities of graduates of educational institutions.

Third, youth employment has overt and covert dimensions. The group of young people who do not work or study anywhere continues to grow.

Fourth, the youth labor market is characterized by high variability. The current system of vocational education in Russia is not able to fully meet the needs of the economy in qualified professional personnel. It does not have a stable connection with the labor market and does not have a controlling effect on eliminating the imbalance in the supply and demand of labor in the labor market.

Today, education once received no longer ensures the competitiveness of citizens in the labor market for the rest of their lives. Inexperienced graduates are particularly hard hit, as employers are interested in hiring mature professionals, resulting in many graduates becoming unemployed or working outside their specialty.

Every year, every fourth graduate becomes a potential candidate for retraining, obtaining a second profession.

In addition, some young people leave because of dissatisfaction with the profession, the nature of work already in the first year of work after graduating from an educational institution.

Fifth, an extremely difficult situation with female employment has been created in the youth labor market: traditionally, among graduates of educational institutions, especially universities, women make up a significant proportion, while employers give a clear preference for hiring men.

Having considered the main problems of unemployment in the Russian Federation, we can conclude that the problem of employment of women and youth is far from new. The solution to these problems is the functioning of a productive state policy.

2.3 Socio-economic consequences of unemployment

social economic unemployment

The consequences of the existence of unemployment can be divided into economic and social. Consider the economic consequences of unemployment:

) underutilization of the labor force, and hence the underproduction of the gross domestic product;

) the lag of actually produced GDP from potential GDP, which could be created in the absence of cyclical unemployment, i.e., in conditions of full employment;

) uneven distribution of the costs of unemployment among different groups: higher unemployment among unskilled workers, among young people and women.

The most serious consequence of unemployment is the decline in the volume of GDP produced below the potential level. The well-known researcher of macroeconomic problems A. Oken mathematically expressed the relationship between the unemployment rate and the unreleased volume of production. This dependence is called Okun's law: each percentage of unemployment above the natural rate leads to a lag of actual GDP (Gross Domestic Product) from potential GDP by 2.5%. Assuming that the unemployment rate in the economy

is 8%, while its natural level is 6%, then the loss of GDP will be 5%.

Consider the social consequences of unemployment:

) the loss of a job is a great personal tragedy. Psychological research shows that being fired is usually just as detrimental to the psyche as the death of a close friend;

) dequalification of people who have lost their jobs, loss of self-esteem, people cannot prove themselves and professionally fulfill themselves;

) the decline of moral principles in society. Unemployment leads to inactivity and can lead to the degradation of a person;

) the higher the unemployment rate, the higher the rate of divorces, suicides, cardiovascular diseases;

) social and political unrest. Massive unemployment can lead to rapid, sometimes violent, social and political change. The consequence of unemployment can be a social explosion if its size exceeds the permissible level.

The implementation of various programs in the regulation of unemployment involves specific actions of the state: reducing the legally established length of working hours during periods of mass unemployment; creation of new jobs and organization of public works (for example, in the field of infrastructure - for the construction of roads); restricting the supply of labor by restricting the entry of foreign workers into the country, prohibiting child labor, etc. An important role in the implementation of employment promotion programs is played by labor exchanges, which are mostly state institutions that act as an intermediary between employers (enterprises and firms ), on the one hand, and potential employees, on the other. These institutions register the unemployed, promote their employment, study the supply and demand in the labor market, and assist those who wish to change their occupation. Having considered the socio-economic consequences of unemployment, we can conclude that the serious negative socio-economic consequences of unemployment increase the responsibility of the state for ensuring employment of the able-bodied population. Currently, these tasks are associated with the goal of achieving full employment in the economy, which in turn is associated with ensuring a balance between the size of the working-age population and the number of jobs needed for it.

3. Ways to reduce unemployment and regulate employment in the Russian Federation

.1 Ways to regulate unemployment in the Russian Federation

The variety of types of unemployment makes the task of reducing it extremely difficult. Since there can be no single “cure for unemployment”, any country has to use a variety of methods to solve this problem.

Frictional unemployment can be reduced by:

1)improvement of information support of the labor market. In all countries, this function is performed by employment organizations (labour exchanges). They collect information from employers about existing vacancies and report it to the unemployed;

2)elimination of factors that reduce labor mobility. For this it is necessary, first of all:

a) creation of a developed housing market;

b) an increase in the scale of housing construction;

c) the abolition of administrative barriers to moving from one locality to another.

At the beginning of our century, a lot was done in Russia in this direction: housing was privatized (without which its market cannot exist), housing trade was allowed, and the propiska system was eliminated.

Reduction of structural unemployment is most facilitated by programs of professional retraining and retraining.

Often people are unable to find a job due to a lack of skills that are now required in their profession. This implies that the Russian media should be filled with advertisements hiring, for example, accountants. Engineers would gladly respond to this proposal, many of whom were in a state of hidden unemployment, being on the staff of half-life enterprises and scientific institutes.

But the engineers did not have the necessary knowledge in the field of accounting. But since the demand for retraining was great, soon Russian advertising newspapers were full of advertisements for various accounting courses. And many of those who completed such courses eventually found work as an accountant.

The most difficult thing to deal with is cyclical unemployment. For solutions

such a task, you have to use many different measures:

) creating conditions for the growth of demand for goods: demand in the labor market is a derivative and depends on the situation in the markets for goods and services. Consequently, employment will increase and unemployment will fall if there is a strong demand in the commodity markets and additional workers must be hired to meet it.

Hence the calls of many Russian politicians to "inject" additional money into the economy to implement the scheme: increase in citizens' incomes growth in demand for goods growth in the production of goods in demand growth in employment at enterprises producing these goods.

A serious flaw in this scheme to combat unemployment is the possibility of a jump in inflation. After all, it will take time to increase the production of goods, and additional money will pour into the markets immediately. As a result, demand will increase, and with the same supply, this will cause an immediate rise in prices. Therefore, more reasonable ways to increase demand are:

stimulation of export growth. This can lead to an increase in production volumes at domestic enterprises and, accordingly, employment in them;

support and encouragement of investments in the reconstruction of enterprises in order to increase the competitiveness of products. Then domestic enterprises will be able to increase their market share and increase the scale of production and employment;

encouragement of foreign investments in the Russian economy. The result of such investments is either the creation of new industries or the reconstruction of existing ones. The final results - the growth of production and employment for the Russians;

) creating conditions for reducing the supply of labor: it is obvious that the fewer people apply for jobs, the easier it is to find a job even with the same number of vacancies. It is quite realistic to reduce the number of applicants for these places and, moreover, to free up additional vacancies for the unemployed.

Some relief may come, for example, by providing early retirement for workers who have not yet reached retirement age. In Russia, for example, when the federal government was abolished, the men who worked in their staff were allowed to retire at the age of 57-58, and women - at the age of 53-54. Without this, older employees would have to look for work. And since they had few chances for employment at this age, they would have increased the army of unemployed. Early retirement prevented this development.

However, this method can only be used on a very limited scale, since it entails a significant increase in pension payments;

) creating conditions for the growth of self-employment: the point of such programs is that people are helped to start their own business so that they can feed themselves and their families, even if they cannot find employment.

The content of these programs can be very different. For example, in a number of countries, special “business incubators” are created for start-up entrepreneurs. Such an "incubator" is usually a complex of premises in which, for a certain period of time, new firms can use the premises, communication services and expert advice on various aspects of commercial activity practically free of charge. Once on its feet and starting to make a profit, the company leaves the "incubator", giving way to newcomers.

In Russia, self-employment was supported by the state. For these purposes, a special program to support small business has been adopted, which is being implemented by the Ministry of Antimonopoly Policy. Its task is to help novice domestic entrepreneurs to start successfully and at least provide a livelihood for their families. And ideally - and create new jobs for those who are now unemployed, but do not have the qualities of a businessman and can only work for hire;

) implementation of programs to support young workers: unemployment hits the elderly the hardest (no one wants to hire them anymore due to falling productivity and poor health) and the youngest (no one wants to hire them yet because of low qualifications and lack of experience).

Various methods can be used to help young people:

economic incentives for youth employment (for example, the provision of certain tax benefits to firms in which young workers make up an agreed share);

the creation of special firms offering jobs specifically to young people;

creation of centers for training young people in those professions in which the chances of employment are the highest.

Having considered and assessed the ways of regulating unemployment in Russia, we can conclude that the lists of programs to reduce unemployment can continue to be developed for a long time - many of them have been invented in different countries. It is important to understand that all these programs cannot completely eliminate or significantly reduce unemployment. This result is achieved only with a general improvement in the economic situation in the country, when the demand for goods begins to grow in it and for their production it becomes profitable to hire people who previously lived on unemployment benefits. It is this development of events that Russia needs.

3.2 Vocational training and retraining of the unemployed

One of the directions of the state's active policy to combat unemployment is the development of vocational training and retraining programs for the unemployed. In some regions, social partnership programs have been developed and are beginning to be put into effect, which provides for the conclusion of agreements with employers to guarantee the employment of persons who have successfully completed training or retraining courses and successfully completed an internship at an enterprise. State bodies, in turn, undertake to pay part of the employee's earnings during his training and acquiring the necessary skills at the enterprise. Employment centers organize various training courses, which are financed by the state. This system has a number of disadvantages: federal employment agencies do not yet have a developed training and course network, effective teaching methods, qualified teachers, reliable information on the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of labor demand in the labor market. The expansion of the scope of vocational training and retraining allows for a temporary reduction in the supply of labor in the labor market and provides training for work in new market conditions.

The big disadvantage is that training takes place only taking into account the demand for certain specialties at the present time and their further demand and competitiveness in the labor market are not taken into account. In the economically developed regions of the country, training in the basics of entrepreneurship and non-commercial management is now practiced in promising areas of economic activity. First of all, those who have been looking for work for a long time are involved in this area. For this, specialized business centers have been organized in some regions.

Thus, we conclude that vocational training and retraining of the unemployed is one of the important and productive areas of the state's active policy to combat unemployment. In view of the fact that this policy is not fully developed, it has a number of shortcomings and disadvantages.

.3 Unemployment protection system in the Russian Federation

An analysis of the situation in the field of employment in the Russian Federation shows that the ability of the emerging labor market to self-regulate is still insignificant, so there remains a need to use elements of state regulation.

The modern policy of the Russian state in the field of employment is regulated by the Law of the Russian Federation "On Employment in the Russian Federation", which is the law of assisting the unemployed population seeking work and registered with the state employment service. The State Employment Service plays an important role here.

State policy in the Russian labor market is characterized mainly by the predominance of such measures as curbing mass unemployment, registering the unemployed, paying unemployment benefits, and facilitating the employment of the unemployed.

The main directions of the active state policy in the social and labor sphere, aimed at preventing the growth of unemployment, are:

providing legal, economic and organizational conditions for creating and maintaining jobs, developing human resources in various sectors of the economy and regions of the Russian Federation;

regulating the emerging national labor market and increasing the competitiveness of the domestic labor force;

formation of an effective structure of employment of the population: improving the quality of created jobs; development of professional and territorial labor mobility; creation of favorable conditions for raising the standard of living by stimulating the labor activity of the population, strengthening the role and responsibility of participants in social and labor relations in the field of employment;

preventing the growth of underemployment and mass unemployment, developing a system of public works;

additional measures for the employment of persons with disabilities;

investing and lending to enterprises and organizations that carry out vocational training and retraining of unemployed citizens under contracts with their subsequent mandatory employment;

strengthening state regulation of migration processes;

social protection of the unemployed, financing of active measures to combat unemployment;

Thus, we conclude that the Russian policy of promoting employment and protecting against unemployment is based on the rich experience of developed countries. But this experience is absolutely ineffective in relation to Russian conditions.

Conclusion

The purpose of the study of this course work was to study and analyze the problem of unemployment and ways to overcome it, consider the possibilities of improvement, development of employment in the Russian labor market.

Theoretical aspects of the functioning of the labor market were considered, which revealed the concept and essence of unemployment and employment, as well as the causes, types and measurement of unemployment.

Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1)Unemployment is understood as a socio-economic phenomenon in which part of the labor force (economically active population) is not employed in the production of goods and services;

2)Unemployment exists in any economic system, although its forms may be different;

)The unemployment rate is estimated by calculating the share of the unemployed in the total labor force;

)There are frictional, structural and cyclical unemployment. The most severe problems are associated with cyclical unemployment.

As a result of the analysis of the Labor Market, it was revealed that at present the situation on the labor market has stabilized, unemployment has not become such an acute problem for the Russian economy as it was just a few years ago. The current trends in the labor market indicate that both employers and candidates have more or less adapted to the crisis situation and are once again showing mutual interest in each other. For employers, it is still relevant and promising to replace existing staff with more experienced, but cheap workers. Almost all companies are revising the staffing table in the direction of increasing the efficiency of the staff. This is achieved by combining several pre-existing positions by one employee. Today, the employer needs an employee who will work for three, but he will receive a salary for one. Employers today are no longer looking for just enthusiasts, people with "connections" or "punching" abilities. They need professionals. In this regard, there is a widespread tightening of requirements for candidates, primarily for their practical work experience and professional skills, and, at the same time, a continuing decline in the level of salaries in dollar terms.

The paper reveals ways to regulate unemployment and employment in the Russian Federation.

To reduce unemployment, methods aimed at stimulating demand for goods can be used. This creates conditions for the growth of employment in enterprises that produce well-purchased goods. In addition, programs of direct assistance to the unemployed - to all or certain groups (primarily the elderly, youth, women and the disabled) can be used. Typically, these programs involve assistance in mastering professions that are in demand, creating small family businesses, organizing enterprises that employ mainly young people or people with disabilities, etc.

Thus, we can draw a general conclusion: the transition to market relations being carried out in Russia at the present time is associated with great difficulties, the emergence of many socio-economic problems. One of them is the problem of employment, which is inextricably linked with people and their production activities.

List of sources used

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Applications

Annex 1

Table. Economically active population

200520062007200820092010Тысяч человекЭкономически активное население - всего734327416775159757577565875448в том числе:занятые в экономике681696885570571709656928569803безработные526353124589479263735645Мужчины372743780838103386803852738578в том числе:занятые в экономике347103499635650361393505935500безработные272528122453254234683078Женщины361583666037056368763713136870в том числе:занятые в экономике336203416034920346263422634303безработные253825002136225029052567

Based on the materials of sample surveys of the population on employment problems: 1992, 1995. - at the end of October; 2000-2010 - on average per year. Since 2006 - including data for the Chechen Republic.

Annex 2

Table. Average annual number of people employed in the economy by type of ownership

200520062007200820092010Тысяч человекВсего в экономике667926717468019684746734367567в том числе по формам собственности:государственная, муниципальная224992203821796215302109720891частная361783722338327391103889439459Собственность общественных и религиозных организаций (объединений)382383375358329316Смешанная российская520248554591427438413716иностранная, сов. grew up И иностранная253126752930320231823185Всего в экономике100100100100100100в том числе по формам собственности:государственная, муниципальная33,732,832,131,531,330,9частная54,155,456,357,157,858,4Собственность общественных и религиозных организаций0,60,60,60,50,50,5Смешанная российская7,87,26,76,25,75,5 n., joint Russian and foreign3,84,04,34,74,74,7

Annex 3

Table. Average annual number of people employed in the economy by type of economic activity1)

Thousand человекВ процентах к итогу200520092010200520092010Всего в экономике667926734367567100100100по видам экономической деятельности:сельское хозяйство, охота и лесное хозяйство73816580646511,19,89,6рыболовство, рыбоводство1381411380,20,20,2добыча полезных ископаемых10519969941,61,51,5обрабатывающие производства11506103851042317,215,415,4Произ. and rasp. electricity, gas and water1912190019092.92.82.8construction4916526752467.47.87.8wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles11088119741225316.617.818.1hotels and restaurants1163127212681.71.91.9transport and communications5369539353608.08.07.9 of which communications9409389321.41.41.4financial activities858109711201.31.61.7 property, lease4879521052547.37.87.8 command and control of military security; social insurance3458378638005.25.65.6Education6039594459149.08.88.8 and provision of social services4548471747276.87.07.0provision of other public services2460262626423.73.93.9

1) Data for 2005 are given without taking into account the Chechen Republic.

Appendix 4

Table. Number of people employed in the economy by sex and occupation in 2010 1)(annual average; thousand people)

Total men women Employed in the economy - total 698033550034303 including: Rec. (representatives) of authorities and management at all levels, including heads of organizations 558634232163 specialists of the highest qualification level in the field of natural and technical sciences Sciences and Health1539562976Spec. top level qual. in the field of education26575522105other specialists of the highest level of qualof the average level of qualification in physical and engineering areas of activity23621738623specialists of the average level of qualification and auxiliary. personnel of natural sciences and health care23261722154Spec. mid-level qual. в сфере образования15561041451средний персонал в области финансово-эконом., административной и социальной деятельности448114783003работники, занятые подготовкой информации, оформлением документации и учетом13381441194работники сферы обслуживания70166635работники сферы индивидуальных услуг и защиты граждан и собственности477820072771продавцы, демонстраторы товаров, натурщики и демонстраторы одежды49027414161рабочие жилищно-коммунального хозяйства29420985рабочие кино,- телестудий and related professions, workers employed in advertising and decoration. and rest. jobs452619skilled workers in agriculture, forestry, hunting, fish farming and fishing251212751237workers employed in mining, mining-cap. and for construction and installation. and construction and repair work29812651329workers of the metalworking and machine-building industry39053578328Workers, vol. precision work on metal and other materials, workers in the art industry. and other types of industries in the art industry, printing production workers16910069professions of transport and communication workers961699262other qualified. workers employed in industry, transport, communications, geology and exploration of mineral resources1605623982operators, apparatchiks and machinists of industrial, apparatchiks, machinists of industrial equipment and product assemblers789381409Drivers and machinists of mobile equipment67286528200Neq. workers obs., housing and communal. economy, trade and related activities409159250 unskilled workers in agriculture, forestry, hunting, fish farming and fishing597412184 Nekv. workers employed in industry, construction, transport, communications, geology and exploration of mineral resources 752463288 unskilled labor professions common to all types of economic activity 575426983055

Annex 5

Table. Distribution of the number of people employed in the economy by age group and level of education in 2010 1) (annual average; percent of total)

ВсегоМужчиныЖенщиныЗанятые в экономике - всего100100100в том числе в возрасте, лет:до 201,11,40,820 - 249,610,58,725 - 2913,614,512,730 - 3412,713,012,435 - 3912,212,012,340 - 4411,711,212,245 - 4914,313,315,350 - 5412,811,814,055 - 598,18 ,47,760 - 723,83,83.8 Average age of those employed in the economy, years 39,939,440.4 Employed in the economy - total 100100100 including higher vocational education 2) 28,925,632.2 secondary vocational 27,122,132.3 primary vocational 19,724,514.7 secondary general 20 .022.517.4 basic general4.04.93.2 do not have basic general education0.30.40.3

According to a sample survey of the population on employment problems.

Including postgraduate education.

Appendix 6

Table. Number of unemployed

200520062007200820092010According to population surveys on employment issues people476464421554667588 percent9.18.79.211.610.510.4 women thousand people253825002136225029052567 percent48,247,146,547,045,645.5 persons living in rural areas thous. people187420841913181321542042 percent37,642,041,137,532,436.2Num. unemployed, salary in the state uch. employment services 2), thousand people1830.11742.01553.01521.82147.31589.9 women thousand people1199.51132.5982.7918.21179.5891.3 percent 65.565.063.360.354.956.1 people living in rural areas thous. people891,2890,0825,2764,5845,6699.4 percent48,751,153,150,239,444.0

Appendix 7

Table. Distribution of the number of employed in the economy and the unemployed by marital status in 2010 1) (annual average; percent of total)

In total, including those who are married Hall, not deputy widowers, widows divorced - total10066.617.83.811.9 men10071.020.61.27.2 women10062.014.86.516.7 Unemployed - total10047.836.63.212.4 men10045.642.21.311.0

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Unemployment- a socio-economic phenomenon that implies the lack of work for people who make up the economically active population.

1. Unemployment rate - the share of officially registered unemployed in the total labor force;
2. The duration of unemployment - the time spent as unemployed.

Unemployment rate- the ratio of the number of unemployed of a certain age group to the number of economically active population of the corresponding age group (in percent) .

Duration of unemployment(duration of job search) is the period of time during which a person, being unemployed, is looking for a job, using any means.

In order to decide on employment policy issues, it is necessary first of all to find out what employment is from an economic and social standpoint.

Employment- this is the activity of the able-bodied population to create a social product or national income.

- socially useful activities of people in the production of material goods and services (material, spiritual, cultural, social services), due to which employment serves to satisfy personal and social needs;
- providing activities with a specific workplace, this allows the worker to realize his physical and spiritual abilities for work, hence the importance for employment is a balance;
- labor resources with the number of jobs in quantitative and qualitative aspects;
- employment is a source of income in the form of wages, profits and in other forms, where income can be expressed in cash and in kind.

TO registered with state institutions of the employment service, includes able-bodied citizens who do not have a job and earnings (labor income), residing on the territory of the Russian Federation, registered with the employment service at their place of residence in order to find a suitable job, looking for a job and ready to start it.

Thus, employment and unemployment are socio-economic phenomena that have a direct impact on the production of the social product and national income.

Course work

Unemployment: concept, causes, types, socio-economic consequences

Plan

Introduction

1. Essence of unemployment

1.1 The concept of unemployment, its causes and types. The natural rate of unemployment and its measurement. A. Phillips curve

1.2 Competitive labor market and wage ratios

1.3 Investment policy and employment

2. Economic and social consequences of unemployment

3. The main directions of state regulation of the labor market

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Unemployment is an integral element of the labor market. It is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon. The unemployed, along with the employed, form the country's labor force. In real economic life, unemployment acts as an excess of labor supply over its demand. The adult population with a labor force is divided into several main categories depending on the position that it occupies in relation to the labor market. The able-bodied population includes those who, due to their age and health conditions, are able to work.

Unemployment generates both purely economic problems - underproduction of the gross national product, and social - poverty, crime, social unrest. Therefore, the state policy to combat unemployment should be aimed at achieving a natural (full) level of employment.

In Russia, the problem of unemployment arose during the transition to the capitalist path of development. The transition to a market economy has inevitably led to major changes in the use of labor resources. With the restructuring of the country's economic life, many factors have emerged that affect the qualitative characteristics of the labor market. The curtailment of the activities of a large number of organizations, a sharp deterioration in the socio-economic situation had a negative impact on the efficiency of using the accumulated production potential, causing a sharp increase in unemployment. The emerging possibility of population migration to non-CIS countries has led to the loss of highly qualified personnel, specialists who can withstand competition in the global labor market, which has led to a decrease in the quality of the labor force.

The unemployed in Russia are persons aged 16 and older who:

do not have a job (profitable occupation);

· are looking for work, i.е. apply to the state or commercial employment service, use: place advertisements in the press, directly apply to the administration of the enterprise (employer), use personal contacts and other methods, take steps to organize their own business;

Ready to get to work.

When referring to the unemployed, all three of the above criteria must be met.

The unemployed, registered with the state employment service, include persons who do not have a job, are looking for a job and, in accordance with the established procedure, have received the official status of unemployed.

Currently, unemployment is becoming an integral element of the life of Russia, which has a significant impact not only on the socio-economic, but also on the political situation in the country, which is the relevance of the research topic.

The purpose of this work is to reveal the essence of unemployment. According to the goal, it is necessary to solve a number of tasks:

1. Define the concept of unemployment, explore its causes and types;

2. Analyze the competitive labor market and the ratio of wage levels;

3. Consider investment policy and employment;

4. Consider and analyze the social and economic consequences of unemployment, as well as the main directions of state regulation of the labor market.

1. Essence of unemployment

1.1 The concept of unemployment, its causes and types. The natural rate of unemployment and its measurement. A. Phillips curve

Unemployment is a part of the country's population, consisting of persons who have reached working age, who are unemployed and who are looking for work during a period of time specified by law.

Based on the definition of unemployment, you can make a formula by which the unemployment rate is calculated:

Unemployment rate = unemployed / labor force * 100%

At the same time, the unemployed are counted on the basis of the data provided by the relevant authorities and institutions (for example, labor exchange statistics are used in many countries), and the labor force is defined as the difference between the total population of the country and certain population groups, which are:

persons who have not reached working age;

Persons in special institutions (places of detention, psychiatric clinics);

· Persons who have left the labor force (pensioners, the disabled, etc.).

It is important that the resulting unemployment rate is purely arithmetic. Assessing the socio-economic consequences of unemployment, it is necessary to consider its various types, which have a different impact on both the country's economy and its social climate.

Causes of unemployment

There are many concepts that explain the causes of such a socio-economic phenomenon as unemployment. Let's consider some of them:

The neoclassical direction considers unemployment as a voluntary, temporary phenomenon caused by too high wage requirements. Supporters of this concept J. Perry, R. Hall believe that the labor market, like all other markets, operate on the basis of conditional equilibrium, that is, the main market regulator is the price, in this case wages. It is with the help of wages, in their opinion, that the supply and demand of labor is regulated and that market equilibrium is maintained. If wages rise above some equilibrium rate due to the demands of workers, then there is an excess of labor supply over demand. This means that there are more job seekers on the labor market than there are jobs, that is, unemployment appears.

In any commodity market under conditions of perfect competition, under the influence of market forces, the excess of supply over demand will contribute to lowering prices to an equilibrium level. Since the labor market in the neoclassical concept functions like any commodity market, an excess supply of labor in this market will also lower wages to an equilibrium level. As a result of lowering wage rates, on the one hand, it will reduce the number of applicants for jobs, and on the other. Due to the reduction in recruitment costs, will increase the demand of entrepreneurs for labor.

The supply of labor also depends on real wages: the higher the wage, the more workers will offer their labor on the market, on the contrary, the lower the wage, the less of them will want to get a job.

Thus, wage flexibility ensures the achievement of a stable equilibrium in the labor market at full employment. Stable, downward inelastic wages are the main cause of unemployment in neoclassical theory. Disagreeing with lower wages, workers make a choice between employment and unemployment in favor of the latter: unemployment, if possible, then as a voluntary one. If the state regulates the level of wages, then the competitive market mechanism will be disrupted. Hence the demands of neoclassical economists - to eliminate unemployment, it is necessary to achieve competition in the labor market, wage flexibility.

The neoclassical concept of voluntary unemployment became the subject of serious criticism by J. Keynes in his fundamental work "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money"

The Keynesian direction is based on the fact that the price of labor (wages) is institutionally fixed and does not change, especially downwards. And the labor market is seen as a phenomenon of permanent economic equilibrium. J.M. Keynes criticized the neoclassical theory of the voluntary nature of unemployment. In the Keynesian concept, it is consistently and thoroughly proved that in a market economy, unemployment is not voluntary, but forced. He did not deny that lowering wages could lead to higher employment, but questioned the effectiveness of such an approach. J. Keynes suggested that the state counteract unemployment through an active financial policy (taxes, public investment) aimed at increasing aggregate demand, which should eventually lead to an increase in demand for labor, and therefore, a decrease in unemployment.

Lack of effective demand leads to low production rates, crisis phenomena and unemployment. Keynes showed that the volume of employment in a certain way is related to the volume of effective demand, and the presence of underemployment, that is, unemployment, is due to the limited demand for goods. Keynes also argued that 3-4% of the population remain unemployed due to the contradictory nature of the economy, its restructuring, technology upgrades.

Outlining his theory, J. Keynes refutes the neoclassical theory and shows that unemployment is inherent in a market economy and follows from its very laws. In the Keynesian concept, the labor market can be in equilibrium not only with full employment, but also with unemployment. This is explained by the fact that the supply of labor, according to Keynes, depends on the value of nominal wages, and not on its real level, as the classics believed. Therefore, if prices rise and real wages fall, workers do not refuse to work. The demand for labor presented in the market by entrepreneurs is a function of real wages, which changes with a change in the price level: if prices rise, workers will be able to buy less goods and services, and vice versa. As a result, Keynes comes to the conclusion that the volume of employment to a greater extent does not depend on workers. And from entrepreneurs, since the demand for labor is determined not by the price of labor, but by the magnitude of the effective demand for goods and services. If the effective demand in a society is insufficient, because it is determined by the marginal propensity to consume, which falls as income rises, then employment reaches an equilibrium level at a point below full employment. The Keynesian concept draws two important conclusions: firstly, the flexibility of wages in the labor market is not a condition for full employment, even if it were to decrease, this would not lead to a reduction in unemployment, as neoclassicalists believed, since expectations fall when prices fall. capital owners in relation to future profits. Secondly, in order to increase the level of employment in society, active government intervention is necessary, since market prices are not able to maintain equilibrium at full employment. The cure for unemployment is government policy. By changing taxes and budget spending, the state can influence aggregate demand and the unemployment rate.

There is also a Marxist explanation for the causes of unemployment.

The Marxist explanation proceeds from the fact that unemployment depends on the dynamics of the organic composition of capital in the process of its accumulation and on the rate of accumulation itself, which constantly produces and, moreover, in proportion to its energy and its size, relatively excessive, i.e. excess capital requirement compared to the average, and therefore an excess or additional population.

The development of large-scale industry under the capitalist mode of production is a necessary prerequisite for fluctuations in the demand for labor, without which, as V.I. Lenin, capitalism cannot exist if there is no surplus labor force. Thus, under the capitalist mode of production, it is impossible, by definition, to provide everyone with jobs. Under conditions of private ownership of the means of production, it is advantageous for the industrialist to have a reserve army of labor. It can be manipulated as you like, pursuing the interests of capital. At the same time, only one cause of unemployment was identified - an excess working population as a necessary product of capital accumulation. Unemployment is presented as an ineradicable vice of capitalist society.

From a sociological point of view, unemployment is a violation of the normal interaction of people regarding the purchase and sale of labor, when a shortage of jobs is often artificially created and a reserve army of labor arises. Unemployment is the eternal companion of capitalism. The surplus working population is not only a consequence of accumulation, but it is a condition for the development of capital, since the capitalist economy develops cyclically, and at the moments of its revival, a reserve labor force is required. In periods of crisis, it is again pushed out to form a reserve for a future upsurge.

Modern explanation: unemployment is a consequence of the deformation and inertia of the labor market. Unemployed people and vacant places always, constantly exist and arise, but it takes time for the required correspondence to be established between them. The consequence of this will be the presence of unemployment, the types and real extent of which are determined by many circumstances.

Automation of production, the introduction of modern information technologies, covering almost all sectors of both production and service sectors, deprives some people of their jobs. Factors that increase the growth of unemployment are also the lengthening of the working day and the increase in the intensity of work. The more hours employed at enterprises work in order not to be among the dismissed, the higher their labor intensity, the less demand for labor at any given moment. Consequently, the excessive work of the employed part of the workers causes the forced idleness of its other part. Conversely, rising unemployment condemns employed workers to excessively intensive work.

The presence of stable unemployment in the labor market indicates the action of non-competitive factors in the labor market that contribute to the stable nature of the deviation of wages upwards from its equilibrium level. These factors include the activities of the government, which can legislatively influence the interests of entrepreneurs and workers and regulate the conditions and level of wages. Another factor is the activities of trade unions. The efforts of the trade unions are aimed at protecting the interests of workers and at raising the level of their wages. Achieving an excess of the actual wage over its equilibrium level, which often leads to negative changes in the labor market, an increase in the number of unemployed.

Types of unemployment

One of the important aspects of this problem is the question of the types of unemployment.

From the point of view of the nature of the displacement of the worker from production, there are:

a) voluntary unemployment, when an employee leaves of his own free will for one reason or another;

b) involuntary unemployment, when the company itself offers the employee to quit, referring to various circumstances;

From the point of view of generating conditions and causes, there are:

a) frictional (from Latin frictio - friction), associated with the search for or expectation of better work in better conditions, it involves the movement of labor across industries, regions, due to age, change of profession, etc. It is sometimes also called fluid unemployment:

b) structural - it is caused by a change, on the one hand, in consumer demand for goods, on the other hand, a change in the structure of production, which responds to changes in consumer demand. These processes are based on scientific and technical progress, the emergence of new materials, technologies, consumer goods, services, which inevitably lead to the need to restructure production, the emergence of new and the withering away of some old professions, and retraining of personnel. A structural change in production leads to the dismissal of workers who, in their specialty and qualifications, do not meet the new requirements of production. Structural unemployment is mostly the unemployment of obsolete professions;

c) technological - the result of the influence of scientific and technical progress, when the emergence of new high-performance equipment dramatically increases the productivity of workers, some of them become redundant, which are "thrown out" on the labor market;

d) cyclical - this is unemployment caused by the recession phase of the economic cycle.

In a recession, production activity decreases, individual enterprises are closed, and, consequently, unemployment rises. The difference between the actual and natural levels of unemployment is the amount of cyclical unemployment.

Cyclical unemployment is a negative economic phenomenon. Its presence shows that the economy does not function at the level of full employment, and therefore, the potential level of GDP is not reached. Indicators of cyclical unemployment are different and fluctuate depending on the intensity of the recession. In the United States, cyclical unemployment during the Great Depression reached 25%.

If unemployment can be above the natural level, i.e. cyclical unemployment can arise, it is legitimate to ask the question: can unemployment be below the natural level? This state of the labor market is called overfull employment.

Super-full employment is considered normal for countries whose economies are in special conditions, such as war. In this case, such a situation in the labor market arises in the absence of economic reasons.

If super-full employment is observed for a sufficiently long time in normal economic conditions, this indicates that the labor market is inflexible, the economy has high inflation. Hence, overfull employment is an unfavorable economic phenomenon;

e) hidden, including part-time workers, especially in agriculture and handicrafts;

f) stagnant, consisting of workers who have lost hope of finding a job, and under an hour and not looking for it;

g) the bottom of life, where the beggars, vagabonds, the homeless, etc., are the final crown of long-term unemployment.

The natural rate of unemployment and its measurement.

The natural rate of unemployment is such a situation in the labor market, in which the demand for labor and its supply coincide. Natural unemployment includes: frictional, structural, that is, something inevitable, objectively determined.

Frictional unemployment is a type of unemployment that is voluntary.

This unemployment is associated with the expectation and search for work. The term "frictional" emphasizes that the labor market is experiencing certain fluctuations, the equilibrium in the labor market is not achieved instantly.

However, this is not just a normal, but a positive state, since the presence of frictional unemployment shows the flexibility of the labor market and the freedom of choice by each of its participants of the line of their further behavior: a broad social policy gives a chance to stay longer in a state of searching for better-paid and more interesting work, which is seen as a great advantage. achievement of the socio-economic policy of the state.

Structural unemployment is a type of unemployment that is associated with changes in the structure of the economy, and, consequently, with a change in the structure of demand for labor.

As you know, the demand for labor is derivative. It depends on the demand for the product or service in the production of which this type of labor is used. Consequently, structural changes in the economy entail structural changes in the demand for labor.

For example, if any industry is in a structural crisis, the demand for the labor of workers in this industry drops sharply. At the same time, the supply of labor, remaining at the same level, begins to exceed the demand for labor, and structural unemployment is formed.

Speaking of structural unemployment, as a rule, as an example, they cite unemployment characteristic of representatives of obsolete professions, which either represent “dying” industries, or are simply replaced by other factors of production. For example, labor can be replaced by capital, and as a result, the demand for labor falls.

Structural unemployment should also include unemployment that may arise as a result of a structural crisis in "living" but struggling industries. For example, as a result of the conversion, many workers in these sectors of Russia found themselves structurally unemployed.

What frictional and structural unemployment have in common is that both of these types of unemployment inevitably arise in the economy of any country. At the same time, the value of frictional unemployment characterizes the degree of socio-economic opportunities of the population in the labor market, and the value of structural unemployment characterizes the degree of structural changes.

There are differences between frictional and structural unemployment.

First, structural unemployment is more protracted than frictional unemployment, since structural crises are difficult to overcome in short periods of time.

Secondly, the composition of the structural unemployed is more stable, which is fraught with the formation of conflict groups that exacerbate the socio-political situation in the country.

Third, if retraining is a matter of choice for the frictional unemployed, then the structural unemployed need mandatory retraining if they plan to find employment during a structural crisis.

Fourth, unlike voluntary frictional unemployment, structural unemployment is always involuntary.

In general, it should be noted that structural unemployment is for the country as a whole, and for those people who belong to this category of the unemployed, the phenomenon is more painful than frictional unemployment.

The sum of frictional and structural unemployment is called natural unemployment.

The term "natural" unemployment "is used to emphasize that this level is normal, inherent in the economy. This is the best level of unemployment, which, on the one hand, is not too high to be able to talk about the problem of employment of resources, and on the other hand, is sufficient to ensure the flexibility of the labor market and the creation of healthy competitive elements.

Natural unemployment is a necessary reserve of labor force, which can be used in case of need.

The natural rate of unemployment is sometimes called the rate of full employment or zero unemployment. This definition emphasizes that a given level of unemployment makes it possible to reach potential GDP, i.e. GDP at full employment.

The natural rate of unemployment is necessary. This is low unemployment, which at the same time does not affect inflation in any way. Being an internal need of the labor market, it does not accelerate inflation.

The natural rate of unemployment has specific indicators. For a developed country, the natural rate of unemployment averages 4-5%. This figure is subject to change as the natural rate of unemployment is affected by a number of factors:

· social policy of the state (high social benefits increase the natural level due to the growth of frictional unemployment: people can afford to be unemployed longer);

· psychological attitudes of the population, characterizing the propensity to employment (this may be due to historical, national, regional characteristics);

· positions of trade unions (strong positions of trade unions affect the labor market in the same way as high social benefits of the state);

Changes in the demographic composition of the labor force.

· Experts of the International Labor Organization (ILO) identify four approaches to measuring the scale and level of unemployment:

· According to the results of the population census or regular sample surveys of the labor force;

· Based on official estimates, which are the bodies of state statistics;

By registering with employment services;

· By the number of persons receiving unemployment benefits.

- the first, in which the status of the unemployed is determined on the basis of labor force surveys based on ILO criteria,

- the third, in which a person is recognized as unemployed by decision of the state employment service.

Quantitatively, unemployment is measured by two parameters:

· Unemployment rate - the share of officially registered unemployed in the total labor force.

· Duration of unemployment - time spent as unemployed.

In the study of unemployment and the development of employment policy, it is necessary to use both indicators. A high level of unemployment in a particular social group can be observed for several reasons:

First, members of this group may face particular difficulties when trying to find a job. For example, women with young children.

Secondly, some groups of young specialists may have difficulties with securing a job.

Finally, part of the employment is characterized by the discontinuous nature of employment.

That is why the policy in relation to unemployment should take into account the factors due to the action of which we observe a high level of unemployment in a particular social group and have a good idea of the structure of the qualitative characteristics of unemployment.

Thus, the most important task now is to find ways to overcome unemployment in the Russian economy.

A. Phillips curve

The Phillips Curve is a graphical representation of the inverse relationship between the inflation rate and the unemployment rate.

It is named after the English economist Alban Phillips, who, on the basis of empirical data for England for 1861-1957, deduced a correlation between the unemployment rate and the change in the growth of money wages.

The dependence initially showed the connection between unemployment and changes in wages: the higher the unemployment, the smaller the increase in money wages, the lower the price increase, and vice versa, the lower unemployment and the higher employment, the greater the increase in money wages, the higher the rate of price growth. Subsequently, it was transformed into a relationship between prices and unemployment.

In the long run, it is a vertical line, in other words, it shows the absence of a relationship between the inflation rate and the unemployment rate.

Π - inflation rate,

Π e - expected inflation rate,

(U − U e) - deviation of unemployment from the natural level - cyclical unemployment,

b > 0 - coefficient,

v - Supply shocks.

The Phillips curve shows the existence of a stable relationship between the unemployment rate and the inflation rate. Since the relationship between these indicators is inversely proportional, there should presumably be an alternative relationship between unemployment and inflation.

If the Phillips curve remains fixed in the position shown in Figure 1, policy makers are faced with a dilemma - which is better: stimulus or contractionary fiscal policy? Traditional measures of monetary and fiscal policy were limited only to the redistribution of aggregate demand. These measures had no effect on labor market imbalances and the system of market dominance, which caused inflation to rise before a state of full employment was reached. In particular, the manipulation of aggregate demand through monetary and fiscal measures had the effect of simply moving the economy along a given Phillips curve.

Rice. 1 Phillips Curve Concept

Therefore, an expansionary fiscal policy and a cheap money policy, which together should actively support aggregate demand and bring about a reduction in the unemployment rate, will simultaneously generate a higher inflation rate.

Conversely, restrictive fiscal and dear money policies can be used to reduce inflation, but only at the cost of rising unemployment and lost output. Aggregate demand policy can be used to select a point on the Phillips curve, but such a policy cannot improve the alternative "unemployment-inflation rate" relationship embodied in the Phillips curve. With the existence of economic interdependencies, expressed in the Phillips curve, it is impossible to achieve "full employment without inflation."

1.2 Competitive labor market and wage ratio

The labor market refers to the markets for factors of production in which very important processes take place: the formation of resource prices that affect the future output of producers in all industries, the formation of factor incomes - wages, profits, interest, rents. Through the labor market, the most important national resource - labor - is distributed among enterprises, industries, professions and regions.

The labor market is a sphere of market relations where the demand and supply of labor is formed, the distribution of labor is ensured, and prices for various types of labor activity are determined.

In this market, sellers and buyers operate, who individually and collectively (through trade unions) enter into contractual relations, determining the price and other conditions for the sale and use of labor. The labor market is no exception to this. At the same time, this is a specific market, because the commodity itself - labor - is unique. This is the only commodity that is inseparable from its owner - a person. At the same time, the latter is not an object of sale and purchase, because it is not the worker that is sold and bought, but his ability to work.

For the seller of labor, not only the price of his labor is important, but also the conditions of labor organization, the risk of injury at work, the nature of his relationship with managers, etc. The bearer of labor-commodity has its own ideas about "fairness" in labor relations. In addition, he is able to form his own organizations (in particular, trade unions) and use non-market methods to defend (up to the strike struggle) his own ideas about wages and other issues.

Any spatial movement of the commodity-labor implies the movement of the worker. And this is often associated with a number of additional problems - the consent of the family, the possibility of educating children in a new place of residence, the availability of housing, etc. Administrative and legal restrictions are also possible (propiska regime, discrimination based on nationality, religion or gender, etc.). The fewer such restrictions and the weaker they are, the more the labor market can be developed. But they cannot be fully overcome, so labor markets have a clearly expressed segmental character. It is customary to distinguish between national and regional (local), sectoral and professional labor markets, labor markets by forms of ownership, socio-demographic groups, etc.

The main elements of the labor market are:

· subjects of the market - employers and workers employed in production, and persons not employed, but willing to work and looking for work;

· labor market institutions that regulate relations between labor market entities and the activities of its infrastructure;

· labor market infrastructure - employment services, career guidance, training and retraining of workers, employment funds, advertising firms, etc.

The presence and interaction of all elements of the labor market is a necessary condition for its normal functioning, which creates conditions for the performance of the basic functions of the labor market.

The information function provides the subjects of the labor market with objective information about the levels of supply and demand, remuneration for a particular profession, specialty, qualification, etc.

The pricing function sets the wage.

The distributive function distributes the workforce among the jobs, ensuring the correspondence between them.

Precisely due to the fact that labor - a commodity is inseparable from its owner - a person, non-market factors of various kinds initially play an incomparably more important role in hiring than other factors.

The competitive labor market has the following characteristics:

a large number of firms competing in the market when hiring workers of this type of labor;

the presence of many workers of the same qualifications offering their work;

· Neither firms nor employees can dictate wage rates.

The subjects of demand in the market are entrepreneurs and the state, and the subjects of supply are workers with their skills and abilities.

What are firms guided by when hiring additional workers? The demand for any factor is determined by the desire for maximum profit. Profit is maximized by increasing labor input up to a level where the income from the marginal product of labor (revenue from an additional unit of output obtained with the help of an additional worker - MRPL) will be equal to the marginal cost of it (wage - w). Therefore, it will be profitable for the firm to hire workers subject to the equality MRPL = w. The demand for labor is inversely related to wages. With an increase in wages, the demand for labor on the part of the entrepreneur decreases, and with a decrease in wages, the demand for labor increases. The supply of labor also depends on the size of wages, but already in direct proportion.

With an increase in wages, each hour of hours worked is better paid, therefore, each hour of free time is a lost profit for the employee, so there is a desire to replace free time with additional work. It follows from this that free time is replaced by the set of goods and services that the worker can purchase with the increased wages. This process is called the substitution effect.

A decrease in the supply of labor with an increase in wages is due to the income effect (the opposite of the substitution effect). Firstly, a person has only 24 hours a day, five or six of which, moreover, he simply needs to rest; secondly, when an employee reaches a certain level of well-being, his attitude to free time changes, the amount of which in this case can be increased only by reducing additional work. The appearance at a certain moment of the income effect and the corresponding dependence of the labor supply on the level of wages characterizes the individual labor supply of individuals or groups of individuals. For the economy as a whole, the aggregate labor supply function will always be increasing due to labor circulation.

Of particular importance is the study of the interaction of aggregate demand and aggregate supply to achieve market equilibrium. It is reached at the point corresponding to a certain level of equilibrium wages and the equilibrium quantity of demand and supply of labor given by this level.

If the wage exceeds the equilibrium price, supply in the labor market exceeds market demand. In this situation, there is a deviation from the position of full employment, there is an excess supply of labor.

In the event of a decrease in the level of wages compared to its equilibrium level, demand in the labor market will exceed supply. As a result, unfilled jobs are formed due to the lack of workers willing to accept lower wages.

Both in the first and in the second cases, the balance in the labor market is restored, and this market comes to a state of full employment.

Wages are the monetary form of the price of labor, which is modified by a number of factors determined by the characteristics of the commodity - labor. These features dictate differences in wages arising not from market principles, but from the characteristics of the areas and conditions of employment, as well as a combination of a number of other socio-political factors (discrimination of various population groups, immigration, regional differences, etc.)

Wages have another side - it is a form of reproduction of the livelihoods of workers. The level of pay, ceteris paribus, should be such as to reproduce workers and their families. This means that wages (if we ignore other sources) cover the costs of satisfying the physiological needs of workers, education, health care and other socially necessary costs.

Thus, wages have a dual nature. On the one hand, this is the form of the price of labor, and, on the other hand, it is the form of the fund of subsistence necessary for the reproduction of workers.

It is necessary to distinguish between the level of wages and the ratio of wages between different workers. The level of wages is determined by the level of productivity of social labor. The higher the level of labor productivity in society, the greater the volume of the social product, the greater the share of the product that falls on a unit of labor, the higher the level of payment.

The ratio of wages between workers in various industries, enterprises, areas also depends on a number of other factors that are not limited to labor productivity. These factors have different origins.

First, they arise from the peculiarities of working conditions. Unfavorable, dangerous, unhealthy conditions, as a rule, involve higher pay.

Secondly, the conditions of reproduction in regions that differ in climatic conditions, territorial remoteness from the center, require compensation for the costs of these unfavorable factors.

Thirdly, the historical, socio-cultural element also has a significant influence. There are a number of other factors that determine pay differences. Among them, the discrimination factor stands out in economic theory, when various opportunities are offered for persons differing in gender, age, nationality, etc.

Investments in human capital are a stable factor that determines the differences in the level and ratios of wages. Human capital is the accumulated stock of knowledge and skills as a result of training and education. It involves certain investments in people, in their education. Higher education costs materialize in higher productivity labor, and a number of labor activities are not available at all without a high level of education. All this is a factor in the higher wages of educated people in a society that is developing in a stable environment.

Distinguish between time and piecework wages. Hourly wages - wages depending on the length of hours worked. The wage rate is the price of labor per hour of work. With a time-based form of wages, it is extremely important for the employer to organize effective labor control, master the technologies that regulate the labor process, and carefully select personnel when hiring.

Piecework (piecework) wages are wages depending on the quantity of products produced. Piecework wages stimulate the intensification of labor. On the one hand, this increases the output, and on the other hand, it can lead to a decrease in the quality of products.

Distinguish between nominal and real wages.

Nominal wage is the amount of money received by an employee for a certain time (hour, day, week, month, year) or the result of labor.

The real wage is the amount of goods that a worker can purchase with a given nominal wage. Real wages depend not only on the value of the latter, but also on the level of prices for goods purchased by the worker and characterizes the purchasing power of the worker.

The main functions of wages:

Reproductive, assuming that the salary should be sufficient to satisfy and reproduce the vital needs of a person;

stimulating - wages stimulate involvement in the labor process and the effective execution of the latter;

Distribution - with the help of wages, the place where each given employee will work is determined, labor is redistributed between areas, industries, enterprises, etc.

However, the role of wages in the economy is not limited to these functions. It is much wider. The macroeconomic role of wages can be highlighted in particular. Wages are the main component of the population's income. It determines the level and composition of demand. The lower the wage level, the narrower the boundaries for economic growth. Conversely, rising wages stimulate economic growth.

1.3 Investment policy and employment

Investment policy, like financial policy, is an integral part of the economic policy of the state. Investment policy is an important lever of influence both on the country's economy and on the entrepreneurial activity of its economic entities.

The investment policy of the state is understood as a set of targeted measures to create favorable conditions for all business entities in order to revive investment activity, boost the economy, increase production efficiency and solve social problems.

The main goal of the investment policy is to create optimal conditions for enhancing the investment potential.

The main directions of the investment policy are measures to organize a favorable regime for the activities of domestic and foreign investors, increase profitability and minimize risks in the interests of stable economic and social development, and improve the living standards of the population.

The result of the implementation of the investment policy is evaluated depending on the volume of investment resources involved in the development of the economy.

The state can influence investment activity with the help of depreciation policy, scientific and technical policy, foreign investment policy, etc.

The depreciation policy of the state establishes the procedure for the calculation and use of depreciation deductions. By implementing an appropriate depreciation policy, the state regulates the pace and nature of reproduction, and first of all, the rate of renewal of fixed assets. The correct depreciation policy of the state allows enterprises to have sufficient investment funds for simple and, to a certain extent, for expanded reproduction of fixed assets.

The scientific and technical policy of the state is understood as a system of targeted measures that ensure the comprehensive development of science and technology, the introduction of their results into the country's economy. Scientific and technical policy is an integral part of the innovation policy and involves the choice of priority areas in the development of science and technology and all kinds of state support in their development.

At present, the Russian economy needs an influx of foreign investment. This is due to the almost complete lack of funding from the state budget, the lack of sufficient funds from enterprises, the development of a general economic crisis and a decline in production, the high wear and tear of equipment installed at enterprises and other reasons. Indeed, foreign capital attracted to the national economy and used effectively, on the one hand, has a positive impact on economic growth and helps to integrate into the world economy. On the other hand, attracting foreign investment imposes certain obligations, creates various forms of dependence of the country, causes a sharp increase in external debt, etc. Thus, foreign investment can have ambiguous consequences for the national economy.

In this regard, naturally, the question is raised of expanding technical assistance aimed at deepening the use of our own resources, improving the skills of national personnel, and only then about attracting investments in the form of loans. The point is that you first need to learn how to use your finances effectively, and then accept foreign capital into your economy.

The prospects for investors in Russia are currently very promising. The absence of significant competition from national entrepreneurs, cheap labor, a capacious market for cheap raw materials and an all-consuming consumer market, and, most importantly, a high percentage of profits many times higher than the average profit in countries with a mature market economy, make the domestic economy attractive for foreign entrepreneurs .

However, despite this, foreign inverters are not in a hurry to invest their capital in Russian enterprises. The main reasons for this are:

instability of the economic and political situation;

· imperfect and contradictory legislation;

ambiguity in the definition of property rights;

· lack of real benefits and privileges for foreign capital;

· instability of the ruble as a national currency;

unpredictability of changes in the tax system, etc.

State measures to attract foreign investment can be summarized in two groups. The first includes actions aimed at reducing inflation, risks for foreign investors in Russia and guaranteed payments on foreign debts. The second is government measures that reduce taxes for foreign investors and ease customs conditions.

Thus, the productive investment policy of the state is closely related to the depreciation policy, scientific and technical policy, foreign investment policy, etc. All of them are components of the economic and social policy of the state, should follow from it and contribute to its implementation.

Investment policy cannot be carried out without a mechanism for its implementation. It should include:

· choice of sources and methods of investment financing;

Determining the timing of implementation;

selection of bodies responsible for the implementation of investment policy;

· Creation of the necessary regulatory and legal framework for the functioning of the investment market;

· Creation of favorable conditions for attraction of investments.

In addition to the state investment policy, there are sectoral, regional investment policy and investment policy of the enterprise. All of them are closely interconnected, but the state investment policy is decisive, as it creates conditions and promotes the intensification of investment activity at all levels.

Sectoral investment policy is understood as investment support for priority sectors of the economy, the development of which ensures the economic and defense security of the country, the export of industrial products, the acceleration of scientific and technological progress and the establishment of undistorted economic proportions in the near and long term.

Regional investment policy is understood as a system of measures carried out at the regional level and contributing to the mobilization of investment resources and determining the directions for their most efficient and rational use in the interests of the population of the region and individual investors.

Investment policy in each region has its own characteristics, which are due to the following factors:

· economic and social policy pursued in the region;

the size of the existing production potential;

natural and climatic conditions;

· equipping with energy and raw materials resources;

geographic location and geopolitical position;

the state of the environment;

The demographic situation

the attractiveness of the region for foreign investment, etc.

An increasing role in investment activity has recently been played by individual commercial enterprises and organizations. Based on this, the role of the enterprise's investment policy is significantly increased. The investment policy of a commercial enterprise is understood as a set of measures that ensure the profitable investment of own, borrowed and other funds in investments in order to ensure the financial sustainability of the enterprise in the near and future. The investment policy of the enterprise proceeds from the strategic goals of its business plan.

Many problems in the formation of the investment process in modern conditions are due to the lack of a clearly developed system of investment policy principles. The system of investment policy principles is the core of the development of the economy, ensuring effective interaction at all levels, starting from enterprises and covering authorities at all levels.

According to the theory of investment, the main principles of investment policy are: purposefulness, efficiency, multivariance, consistency, flexibility, readiness to develop resources, controllability of actions, complexity and social, environmental and economic security.

These principles should be implemented in the investment policy of authorities at various levels. Investment policy at the federal level should intensify investment activity at the level of regions and enterprises.

To conduct an effective municipal investment policy (at the level of municipalities), it is necessary to develop an investment strategy at the level of the region (oblast, territory, republic).

In modern conditions, an effective investment policy should be based on the development of four basic principles:

· improvement of legislative support of investment activity;

· implementation of the concentration of investment policy in the strategic areas of investment programs;

· organization of interaction with enterprises in order to mobilize their own funds for investment (here we are talking about the implementation of the mutual interests of enterprises in the region in the development of investment policy);

· continuous monitoring of positive and negative aspects of development.

Any investment policy is aimed at creating jobs for the able-bodied population. The attracted capital opens up great prospects for the development of various branches of economic activity, and, consequently, the opportunity for citizens to get a job with a decent wage. New jobs are being created and the unemployment rate is falling.

2 Economic and social consequences of unemployment. The main directions of state regulation of the labor market

Economic consequences of unemployment

The economic consequences of unemployment are very diverse and ambiguous. Their structure is also quite complex. At the same time, not all aspects of this very important problem are predominantly considered in various literature. Economic losses are mainly studied, which include: the amount of benefits and various payments for unemployment, the cost of retraining personnel, the opening of new jobs, a decrease in the income of unemployed people, etc. In addition, the volume of potential products that the unemployed could produce, the reduction in deductions to the budget (taxes) and to state insurance funds are estimated. At the same time, the losses and costs of unemployment are calculated mainly at the level of the national economy. At the same time, it should be noted that unemployment is a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon, its consequences are manifested at almost all levels of the economic and social life of society and have a direct impact not only on the country's economy, but also on each participant in the economic process.

In this regard, when solving the issue of economic losses, it is necessary to single out the levels of their assessment. It seems to us that it is necessary to include a country, a region, an industry, an enterprise, an unemployed person among them. We are also convinced of the legitimacy of this approach by the fact that the losses of each level are autonomous. The results of loss calculations for one level cannot be used to estimate the loss of another. In particular, the losses of the enterprise cannot be expressed in terms of the losses of its employees. The tiered approach to assessing losses from unemployment makes it possible to carry out a more specific and targeted analysis of its economic consequences.

The basis for calculating the costs of unemployment is the so-called A. Okun's law. It has, as it were, two sides: one shows what economic growth should be in order to solve the problem of unemployment, the other expresses the quantitative dependence of changes in the unemployment rate and GDP production. A. Oken empirically found that with an increase in the actual unemployment rate by one percentage point compared to its natural level, GDP production lags by 3%. Even with an increase in the number of employees and an increase in labor productivity, to create new jobs and keep unemployment at the same level, from 2.5 to 3% of annual GDP growth is needed. An additional decrease in the growth rate by 2% increases the unemployment rate by 1 percentage point, or vice versa.

In any case, the fact that the excess of the unemployment rate above its natural level leads to a lag in the growth of real output is indisputable. This method of determining economic losses from unemployment seems to be quite reasonable and is accepted in domestic and world economic science.

The fundamental moment of using A. Okun's law in assessing the economic costs of unemployment is the determination of the level of natural unemployment. The solution of this problem makes it possible, as already noted, to more accurately estimate the real losses from underproduction of the gross domestic product.

Rising unemployment also increases government spending. Their bulk is carried out at the expense of the employment fund. The sources of its replenishment are, as you know, not only the mandatory insurance contributions of employers from the earnings of employees, but also appropriations from the federal budget, the budgets of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local budgets, voluntary contributions from legal entities and individuals.

The completeness of the assessment of losses from unemployment in the production of GDP suggests the need to analyze their regional structure.

In each region, there is a corresponding socio-economic situation, including the existing actual and natural levels of unemployment.

For most people, the loss of a job dramatically changes their lives, puts them in a very difficult situation, both morally and financially (in the absence of significant savings, the standard of living decreases, you have to give up many things and services that are familiar and necessary for a person and his family, and in the most extreme case - there is simply not enough money for food).

Unemployment means the loss of permanent and regular income. In conditions when incomes are low and a person does not have the opportunity to create any monetary and other savings, the loss of a permanent source of livelihood is a big disaster. Namely, this state of affairs takes place in Russia.

The potential losses of the unemployed are quite palpable. However, even with a reduction in the average duration of the job search for the unemployed and an increase in wages in recent years, the losses amount to a very significant amount - more than 16 billion rubles, and the situation remains quite difficult, especially considering that more than a third of the unemployed have been unemployed for more than a year. All this suggests that unemployment is detrimental not only to the individual, but also to the economy, since the demand for goods and services is declining, which means that their production volumes are also declining.

However, one cannot ignore the fact that a certain part of the unemployed receive unemployment benefits. Actually, this is the only official source of income for the unemployed, unless, of course, he is registered with the State Employment Service. The payment of benefits may be terminated for up to three months in the event of: refusal during the period of unemployment from two options for suitable work, refusal after a three-month period of unemployment from participating in paid public works or from sending for training by the employment service of citizens who are looking for a job for the first time and those who do not have a profession, seeking to resume their labor activity after a long break; appearance of the unemployed for re-registration in alcoholic intoxication caused by the use of alcohol, narcotic drugs or other intoxicating substances. 3

Becoming unemployed, receiving benefits, a person immediately goes into the group of the poor, especially if he cannot find a job for quite a long time, which, as a rule, happens.

Assessing the financial situation of the unemployed, it should be noted that they also have new items of expenditure. A person needs certain expenses to restore his status, to find a suitable job. This can include the costs of collecting information about vacancies (purchasing newspapers, working on the Internet, responding to ads), submitting information about a job search; expenses for independent retraining, if it is required when changing a specialty or for advanced training; for compiling and mailing resumes: travel expenses; the cost of maintaining a decent appearance; as well as to apply to specialized recruitment firms, etc.

The consequence of unemployment is the increased competition in the labor market for the most prestigious jobs. Its high level can lead to the fact that certain and quite significant groups of the population will be forced to fill low-prestige, uninteresting jobs for them. In this case, labor activity for them will be of a "forced" nature, and such labor, as you know, cannot be highly effective and provide the necessary quality of work.

Moreover, in such conditions it is not possible to form stable production teams, the need for which is obvious. Orientation to democratic, humanistic principles of labor organization involves not just providing a person in need with a job, but one that will correspond to the profile of his training, abilities, desires. In addition, unemployment kills a person's initiative, creates in him uncertainty about the future, and his strengths and capabilities, reduces his labor and civic potential.

The economic consequences of unemployment for an individual can also be expressed in a decrease in the price of labor, especially in the context of an increase in the duration of unemployment.

There are cases when employers, especially at small enterprises, establish a longer working week than the statutory one, reduce the duration of vacation, do not pay sick leave, including in connection with childbirth, and refuse to hire women. They can terminate the employment contract without any good reason, etc.

In the final analysis, the growth of unemployment indicates a general trouble in the economy, mistakes in the economic course of the government.

However, it is hardly legitimate to say that all the consequences of unemployment are equally and always exclusively negative and manifest themselves as losses. Of course, there is also a positive aspect of unemployment, which, like many negative consequences, has not been studied enough.

Unemployment and its growth give a very accurate and effective "signal" to the worker that his profession, special knowledge, work skills are outdated, the level of qualification does not meet the requirements of today. All this in a certain way stimulates the employee to systematically improve his professional skills. For an individual, unemployment in this case can become a "springboard" for obtaining a new profession (specialty), as sometimes happens today both in Russia and abroad. It can "induce" a person to improve his qualifications, gain knowledge in the second, third profession. Often it is she who "forces" a person to get a higher education.

In this case, the unemployed person does not incur moral losses to a certain extent, and material costs are often calculated and, from his point of view, justified. Accordingly, they are perceived by him in a different way, i.e. if the effect of these costs is positive (or they will "pay off" in the future), then there is no reason to talk about any losses.

The effects of unemployment can (and do) have positive effects on businesses as well. It is not at all necessary that an enterprise that has laid off or fired an employee be in the red, on the contrary, most often it wins. As a result of downsizing (when modernizing production, for example), an enterprise can secure an increase in profits. By "getting rid" of a not very cheerful worker, it will save on wages paid to him over a certain period of time, on taxes (in particular, income), etc. In addition, by dismissing such an employee, the enterprise can find a more qualified one on the labor market or intensify the work of the remaining members of the team.

A positive result of the existence of unemployment at the country level (provided that the unemployment rate does not exceed its natural rate by several times) is the fact that unemployment is one of the conditions for the normal, uninterrupted functioning of the economy, ensuring the formation of a labor reserve as the most important factor in the development of a market economy. This is due, in particular, to the need to put into operation new objects of economic activity. Their staffing cannot be ensured only through the natural increase of the economically active population.

At the same time, the current production systematically demands additional labor both in connection with the need to replenish the natural loss, and in connection with the so-called staff turnover. It is possible to satisfy it under the conditions of the modern market mechanism by reserving the labor force, since many of the laid-off workers need retraining, advanced training, and so on.

In a number of cases, this can be done only with a break from production.

Unemployment ensures the redistribution of personnel necessary for production, their concentration in those types of activities that consumers need today. True, such overflows of personnel are not always painless for an individual.

And here the role of the state is very great, which should mitigate the negative side of these processes, which are generally positive for production and the population.

Social Consequences

Unemployment destroys the most important component of the habitual way of life for Russian citizens - confidence in the right to work, in full employment, in finding an interesting, profitable job.

At the same time, it must be borne in mind that labor activity for the vast majority of people in the recent past was not only and not so much a source of income, but a matter of honor, civic prowess of a person. And, therefore, the deprivation of the opportunity to work today is also a great social tragedy.

In the minds of people, the emergence of unemployment is inextricably linked with economic reforms. Therefore, the negative attitude of the population towards unemployment can also be expressed in the rejection of the process of economic transformation. And this narrows the social base of reforms, hinders the growth of the economy in the country.

Unemployment leads to inactivity of a person, and this can lead to the degradation of the individual. Unemployment is inextricably linked with depression, an oppressed, depressed mental state. There is also a link between unemployment and divorce. As unemployment increases, the number of divorces decreases.

An important social consequence of unemployment for a person is the loss of a permanent and regularly received source of livelihood. In conditions when a person's income is low, and he does not have the opportunity to create any monetary and other savings, such a loss is a particularly big disaster. Namely, such a situation takes place in Russia.

Unemployment, reducing family incomes, increases the differentiation of the population. And this contradicts the concepts of equality as an egalitarian distribution, which is rooted in the minds of millions of our people. And it takes a long time for the majority of the population to realize that egalitarian distribution hinders the growth of production efficiency and is detrimental to the state and the individual. Although, of course, one cannot but admit that the income differentiation that exists today is not economically justified and does not contribute to social peace in the country, to production efficiency.

All these circumstances suppress the moral principles of human behavior. He becomes irritable, callous, angry, indifferent to someone else's fate, feels humiliated, unnecessary to his family, society. All this kills the initiative of a person, gives rise to uncertainty in his strengths and capabilities, reduces his labor and civic potential. Unemployment leads to inactivity, marginalization of the population, deterioration of the socio-psychological climate in society. It can act as a source of destabilization and social tension, a social explosion. This is possible when all dimensions exceed the allowable level. In foreign literature, the unemployment rate of 10-12% is considered such a critical value.

In the general agreement between the All-Russian Association of Trade Unions, the All-Russian Association of Employers and the Government of the Russian Federation, the critical unemployment rate is considered to be 10%. Such a level of unemployment (and even higher) takes place in some regions of the country, which, of course, created a certain social tension. At the same time, when trying to determine the critical value of the unemployment rate, one must keep in mind that the situation can become explosive even in conditions of its slight increase.

It is quite possible to imagine such a picture. For example, in a large city, where the number of unemployed is about several hundred thousand, and the economically active population is more than several million, the closure of one of the largest enterprises will be announced. Such an event can lead to significant socio-economic destabilization.

Unemployment can act as a condition for socio-economic destabilization even if its threat affects workers of not particularly numerous, but well-organized professional groups that play an important role in the economic life of the country or in a certain type of activity. An example of such professional groups can be miners, power engineers, doctors, teachers. Unemployment becomes a factor of socio-economic destabilization even in the case when the group of limes who cannot find a job for a long time - the so-called "desperate" - increases significantly. The existence of this category of people is due to the fact that a person who has lost his job due to the uselessness of his profession may be forced to find jobs that require lower qualifications, and they, as a rule, "close" sooner or later. In this case, it becomes even more difficult for a person to find a job.

Her search can continue for a very long time, and, in the end, a person loses hope of getting a job and stops looking for it, and therefore, being actually unemployed, he legally loses this status, according to the definition of unemployed. Little information is available about this population group.

But the role of unemployment as a factor of social destabilization is not limited to this alone. It can act as a "time bomb". In this case, too, we are talking about modern unemployment in some of the leading sectors of the economy. These include: science and scientific services; information and computing service; some manufacturing industries. Unemployment in these sectors is accompanied by the disqualification of workers, their retraining and emigration.

However, sooner or later, when the phase of recovery and recovery of the economy comes, the demand for these workers will increase, and its satisfaction will be impossible. This will lead to a delay in the economic development of Russia, to a deeper socio-economic destabilization in terms of its content.

Speaking of unemployment, one must keep in mind that its consequences as a complex socio-economic phenomenon cannot be unambiguously assessed. It is not only negative. Unemployment is one of the most important conditions for the normal and uninterrupted functioning of the economy. It ensures the formation of a labor reserve as the most important factor in the development of a market economy, which constantly makes demand for labor. Unemployment ensures the redistribution of personnel necessary for production, their concentration in those types of activities that produce products and services that are in great demand.

3. The main directions of state regulation of the labor market

Due to the variety of internal regulators, as well as due to the social importance of the effective functioning of the labor market, it needs qualified regulation. It seems that the creation of such an effective system of regulation in the field of employment is one of the main social tasks of the reforms being carried out in Russia. I must say that something has already been done in this area. A law on employment has been adopted, labor exchanges (employment assistance services) are being created, and the registration of the unemployed has begun.

Here it is reasonable to refer to the proven experience of many developed countries.

There are four main areas of state regulation of the labor market. First, these are programs to stimulate employment growth and increase the number of jobs; secondly, programs aimed at training and retraining the workforce; thirdly, programs to promote the recruitment of labor and, fourthly, programs for social insurance of unemployment, i.e. The government allocates funds for benefits to the unemployed.

Within the framework of these programs in the United States, for example, in the post-war period, hundreds of thousands of jobs were created in the public sector (in the field of public services - education, medical care, utilities, as well as in the construction of public buildings and structures and repair and restoration work).

State recruitment assistance and training and retraining programs are also becoming increasingly important.

Indirect regulation of the labor market

The listed directions do not exhaust all measures of state influence on the labor market. Along with them, there is a set of measures for indirect regulation of this market: tax, monetary and depreciation policies of the government. In addition, legislation in the field of social security, labor relations, civil rights, etc. has a significant impact on the labor market. In the United States, for example, most of these laws were adopted in the 1930s.

Measures of indirect regulation of the labor market are at the same time measures of general economic regulation and influence on the dynamics of employment and unemployment through the situation in the country. Thus, modern state regulation of the labor market is a complex of economic, administrative, legislative, organizational and other measures.

Labor exchanges and private intermediary firms

A special place in the labor market regulation system is occupied by labor exchanges (employment service, employment service, recruitment assistance service), which are one of the important structures of the market economic mechanism. They are special institutions that carry out intermediary functions in the labor market. In most countries, labor exchanges are public and run by the ministry of labor or a similar body. At the same time, a large number of private intermediary firms operate in the labor market, along with state employment services, and their efficiency is very high. So in the US there are about 15 thousand such firms. Many such firms are already operating in Russia.

The main activities of labor exchanges are:

1) registration of the unemployed;

2) registration of vacancies;

3) employment of the unemployed and other persons wishing to get a job;

4) study of the labor market situation and provision of information about it;

5) testing of persons wishing to get a job;

6) professional orientation and professional retraining of the unemployed;

7) payment of benefits.

It should be emphasized that in modern conditions in developed countries, the majority of citizens are employed not through labor exchanges, but by contacting the personnel services of enterprises and organizations directly or with the help of private intermediary agencies.

More active activity in Russia of such private firms, along with the activity of state labor exchanges, would be important for the effective functioning of the labor market. So far, such firms serve mainly a relatively narrow market of scarce specialties. At the same time, the role of labor exchanges in helping the unemployed (payment of benefits, employment, retraining) is very noticeable in many countries. In the United States, for example, such assistance is provided annually to an average of 6-8 million unemployed. In Russia in 2009, over 14 million people applied to the employment services for the provision of public services in the field of employment.

The legislation of most countries contains the basic conditions for receiving unemployment benefits.

Legislative regulation of employment and unemployment in Russia is carried out in accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation "On Employment in the Russian Federation" dated April 19, 1991, as well as the Regulation on the procedure for registering unemployed citizens and the conditions for paying unemployment benefits, adopted by the Government of the Russian Federation on November 17, 1992 .

In accordance with Russian legislation, the employment center where the unemployed person is registered is obliged to:

· within 10 days after registration, the consultant-registrar, if possible, should offer the citizen at least 2 options for suitable work, including temporary work or participation in public works, and for those who are looking for a job for the first time (previously not working) and at the same time not having a profession (specialty), the legislation also provides for the offer of 2 options for obtaining vocational training at short-term courses in the direction of the employment service.

if within 10 days after the registration of a citizen in order to find a suitable job, the issue of his employment was not resolved due to the lack of such work, and if the person registered during this period did not refuse 2 options for suitable work, including temporary work , or 2 training options (for first-time job seekers who do not have a profession, specialty) on short-term courses, did not violate without good reason (confirmed, as at work, by a supporting document) the terms of invitations to the consultant-registrar - on the 11th day from on the day of registration of a citizen in the employment service bodies, a decision is made to recognize him as unemployed from the day he is registered in order to find a suitable job, and from the same day unemployment benefits are assigned.

The amounts of unemployment benefits are differentiated depending on the categories of citizens recognized as unemployed in the prescribed manner:

Dismissed from enterprises for any reason, who had paid work for at least 12 calendar weeks on a full-time basis before dismissal, the allowance is paid during the first three months in the amount of 75% of the average earnings for the last two months of work, over the next four months - 60%, in the future - 45%, but in all cases not lower than the minimum wage established by the legislation of the Russian Federation, and not higher than the average wage in the given republic, territory or region;

Those dismissed from enterprises for any reason, but who did not have 12 weeks of paid work in the last year, are paid benefits in the amount of the minimum wage;

Citizens looking for a job for the first time, as well as those seeking to resume their labor activity after a long (more than one year) break, are paid unemployment benefits only in the amount of the minimum wage established by law.

The duration of the period of payment of unemployment benefits may not exceed twelve calendar months in total terms. The payment of benefits is terminated in cases of employment of an unemployed person, professional training, advanced training or retraining with the payment of a scholarship, granting him a pension.

State regulation of the problems of employment and unemployment in the Russian Federation is carried out by the Ministry of Labor and Social Development of Russia, as well as its local bodies - employment centers and services (labor exchanges). The same department develops and implements a general state policy in the field of labor, development of labor relations based on social partnership, prevention and resolution of labor conflicts, labor protection, training and retraining of personnel.

Most economists believe that the problem of unemployment and other imbalances in the labor market can only be alleviated through a combination of various means: stimulating economic growth, shortening the working week, creating an effective system of retraining of personnel.

Conclusion

Unemployment accompanied humanity at all stages of its life path. It is an integral part of our life. There are many theories of the emergence of unemployment, methods are being developed to combat it, but all of them are powerless in relation to this problem. The only thing they can lead to is getting closer to the natural rate of unemployment. But this model is not perfect either.

In a competitive labor market, there is always a chance that your work will be in demand and highly appreciated, that you will be offered the best working conditions. But there is also a high probability that someone else will take your place, the one whose work will be more efficient. The buyer of labor will be demanding and unwilling to look for the best personnel, and the reward for labor will be appropriate. A competitive labor market is a step towards combating unemployment.

One more step on this way is attraction of investments. By attracting a large amount of investment, we can expand or open a new production facility, thereby creating new jobs. But even here there are pitfalls. The development of production goes hand in hand with scientific and technological progress, replacing human labor with machine labor. Which again leads to unemployment.

Despite the fact that unemployment is a part of our lives, we should not forget to control it. High unemployment will lead to huge social as well as economic consequences. Therefore, the state, by various methods, tries to regulate the labor market. Acting as a stabilizer in the relationship between employer and employee.

Unemployment is the scourge of modern society. There is currently no solution for this problem. Every effort must be made to minimize the unemployment rate and create better working conditions in a competitive environment.

List of used literature

Main literature

1. Borisov E. Economic theory: textbook. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Velby, Iz-vo Prospekt, 2007, Ch.21.

2. Iokhin V. Economic theory: Textbook.- M.: Economist, 2007, Ch.15.

3. Economics: textbook / edited by prof. A.S. Bulatov. - 4th ed., revised and additional. - M. : Economist, 2006, Ch. 14.

4. Arkhipov A.I., "Economics", M: Prospect, 2nd edition, 2005 -840 p.

5. Breev B.D., "Unemployment in modern Russia", M: Nauka, 2nd edition,

6. 2006. - 269 p.

7. Bulatov A.S., "Economics", M: Economist, 3rd edition, 2005-896 p.

8. 4. Bunkina M.K., Semenov V.A. "Macroeconomics." 3rd edition, Moscow: Delo i Service, 2000 .- 436 p.

9. 5. Nikolaeva I.P. ,Kaznakhmedova I.P. , "Economic theory", M: Unity, 3rd edition, 2005. - 543 p.

10. Vidyapin V.I., Dobrynin A.I., Zhuravlev G.P., Tarasevich L.S., "Economic theory", 2nd edition, M: Infra - M, 2005. - 672 p.

11. Gryaznova A.G., Sokolinsky V.M. , "Economic theory", 2nd edition, M: KNORUS, 2005. - 464 p.

additional literature

1. Global employment trends in 2007-2008 // BIKI. - 2008. - No. 16.

2. Dorofeeva Z. Unemployed in modern Russia // Sociological research. - 2008. - No. 2.

3. The International Labor Organization predicts an increase in unemployment in the world. // BIKI. - 2008. - No. 18.

4. Regions of Russia. Socio-economic indicators. 2007: statistical collection / Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat). - M.: Rosstat, 2007.

In economic theory, two indicators are used that can paint an objective picture of economic instability in the labor market. This is the unemployment rate and its average duration. The unemployment rate is measured as the proportion of officially registered unemployed to the number employed in manufacturing.

Unemployment is a state in which the able-bodied population is looking for, but cannot find, work. The entire population of the country can be divided into able-bodied and disabled. The working-age population is people aged 16 to 55 (women) and 60 (men) who are willing and able to work.

The disabled (economically inactive) population is all other categories of citizens:

1) pupils and students attending daytime educational institutions;

2) persons receiving pensions for old age, on preferential terms, for disability;

3) persons engaged in housekeeping, childcare;

4) those who despaired of finding a job and stopped looking for it;

5) conscripts;

6) persons who are in places of deprivation of liberty or undergoing compulsory treatment;

7) persons who do not need to work (for example, dependents and parasites).

According to the legislative acts of the Russian Federation, the unemployed are people who:

1) have no work and earnings;

2) are registered with the employment service in order to find a suitable job;

3) ready to start work at any moment.

For a more specific characterization of unemployment in economic theory, three interrelated indicators are used: the unemployment rate, the natural rate of unemployment, and full employment.

The unemployment rate is the ratio of the number of unemployed to the total labor force, expressed as a percentage.

The natural rate of unemployment is the lowest possible rate of unemployment in the country at full employment (5-6%). The number of available jobs is approximately equal to the number of people looking for work.

Full employment is a state in society when unemployment does not exceed its natural level (5-6%).

In addition, it is necessary to distinguish between the number of unemployed registered at labor exchanges (employment services) and the total number of unemployed, in the calculation of which the unemployed include all those who are unemployed, actively looking for it and ready to start it as soon as possible.

The causes of unemployment are diverse: these are psychological, communicative, and a number of economic reasons. The economic causes of unemployment are as follows:

1) the development of modern technologies, the emergence of new equipment, machines lead to the release of part of the workers who need retraining or retraining;

2) reduction of the administrative apparatus;

3) an economic downturn, as a result of which the economy's needs for resources, including labor, decrease;

4) structural shifts in the economy, leading to the disappearance of obsolete industries and enterprises, and the emergence of new ones;

5) seasonal changes in the demand for labor due to the specifics of production (for example, agriculture, construction, tourism, etc.).

Unemployment is negative and has many consequences for the economy. Among the negative consequences of unemployment, the most important is the underproduction (reduction in production), the loss of part of the GNP

Types of unemployment

Modern Western economic science distinguishes the following forms of unemployment:

Fractional;

Structural;

Cyclic;

Seasonal;

Voluntary;

Forced;

congestive.

Frictional unemployment is associated with job searches or expectations. Some people voluntarily change jobs in connection with a change in professional orientation, a change of residence, or in order to take better positions in other firms. Other people are looking for a new job due to being fired for incompetence or due to the bankruptcy of the company. Still others temporarily lose their seasonal jobs. Fourth (youth) are looking for work for the first time. When all these people start working, new ones will come to replace them, maintaining this type of unemployment from month to month. Frictional unemployment is even desirable, as it allows workers to improve working conditions and find higher wages.

Structural unemployment is associated with changes in the structure of demand for labor by industry, region and the need for a certain time to establish a correspondence between the structure of the labor force, certain qualities of workers and vacancies with certain professional requirements. In the course of technological transformations, the demand for some professions decreases or stops, for others it increases, the geographical distribution of jobs changes. For example, the introduction of personal computers reduced the demand for typewriters, which reduced the demand for labor in typewriter factories. At the same time, the demand for labor in the electronics industry increased. Different regions produce different goods, the demand for labor can simultaneously decrease in some regions and increase in others. If the frictional unemployed have skills that they can apply, then the structural unemployed will not be able to find a job without retraining, additional training, or changing their place of residence. Since structural shifts happen all the time, and workers need a certain amount of time to change jobs, structural unemployment is sustainable. Structural unemployed people find it difficult to get a job due to insufficient or no longer sufficient qualifications, discrimination based on gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, age or disability. Even during periods of high employment, the structural unemployed remain disproportionately unemployed.

Cyclical unemployment is caused by a recession, that is, that phase of the economic cycle, which is characterized by a lack of general spending. When aggregate demand for goods and services decreases, employment falls and unemployment rises. A recession is a cyclical decline in business activity that results in people losing jobs until demand picks up again and business activity recovers.

Another type of unemployment is seasonal unemployment, which is generated by the temporary nature of the performance of certain types of activities and the functioning of sectors of the economy. These include agricultural work, fishing, berry picking, timber rafting, hunting, partially construction and some other activities. In this case, individual citizens and even entire enterprises can work intensively for several weeks or months of the year, sharply reducing their activities the rest of the time. During the period of hard work, there is a massive recruitment of personnel, and during the period of curtailment of work - mass layoffs. This type of unemployment, according to certain characteristics, corresponds to cyclical unemployment, according to others - to frictional unemployment, since it is voluntary. Seasonal unemployment rates can be predicted with a high degree of accuracy, as they are repeated from year to year, and, accordingly, it is possible to prepare for solving the problems caused by them.

Voluntary unemployment - this unemployment is associated with an unwillingness to work, exists in the presence of vacant jobs, when a potential employee is not satisfied with the level of wages, or the very nature of the work (hard, uninteresting, not prestigious work).

Involuntary unemployment arises due to the lack of raw materials, energy, components, which led to the shutdown of the enterprise, is generated by new conditions for the functioning of enterprises and forms of employment, as well as forced resettlement.

Long-term unemployment - this form of unemployment, the most characteristic of the economy of a transitional society. Long-term unemployment, as the most typical form of unemployment in a transitional economy, is aggravated by the fact that the traditions of the past largely lead to the hopes of a significant part of workers that they will be able to solve their problems in the future through state support, but not through their own activity. Economists view frictional and structural unemployment as a "normal" and inevitable phenomenon that cannot be overcome. Therefore, full employment does not mean the absolute absence of unemployment, but the level of employment at which there is only frictional and structural unemployment, but no cyclical unemployment.

The unemployment rate at full employment is called natural rate of unemployment. It occurs when labor markets are balanced, when the number of job seekers is equal to the number of vacancies. Thus, the natural rate of unemployment reflects a combination of frictional and structural unemployment and is defined as the sum of their levels. Cyclical unemployment in this case should be at zero. The question of what level of unemployment corresponds to full employment is debatable. Some economists define the natural rate of unemployment as the long-term average rate of unemployment. In this case, the unemployment rate, on average over long periods of time, is, by definition, equal to the natural rate, which corresponds to the potential output. The factors that determine the natural level of unemployment include the demographic structure of the labor force, the organization of the labor market (the presence of information and employment services, employment centers and other infrastructure elements), the composition of the labor force and demand for it, the possibility of attracting new workers to work, government policy in the labor market and in the social sphere (payment of unemployment benefits, their level, duration of receipt). For example, over the past decades, upward dynamics of the natural rate of unemployment has been greatly influenced by demographic shifts: women, adolescents, and representatives of national minorities are increasingly occupying the labor force structure.

Forms of unemployment both in the countryside and in the city can be reduced to two main ones: open and hidden. The open form includes unemployed persons officially registered through the employment service, as well as those who independently make efforts to find work or gainful employment. The number of the latter can be determined in accordance with the methodology of the International Labor Organization (ILO). In our country, it is taken into account by regional statistical bodies. It is characteristic to point out that the share of unemployed persons officially registered with the employment services of the constituent entities of the Southern Federal District currently accounts for no more than 2% of the labor force of these regions (with the exception of some republics of the North Caucasus). However, their real number (according to the statistical bodies using the ILO methodology) often exceeds 12-14%.

The second form, that is, the hidden one, includes workers employed in production, but in reality they are “superfluous”. They, as a rule, either work, through no fault of their own, part-time or weekly, or are sent on administrative leave. Hidden is typical mainly for countries with deep deformations of market mechanisms. For example, the lack of incentives to work leads to low productivity when two people do the work of one person. This indicates that one job is superfluous, and the level of hidden unemployment reaches 50%. Hidden unemployment is replenished by people who work part-time or weekly, as well as those who have despaired of finding jobs and, having lost the right to receive benefits, have refused to register at labor exchanges.

There is also the so-called survey unemployment - an estimated value that characterizes the real situation in the labor market on the basis of periodic special surveys of the able-bodied population.

Unemployment is a socio-economic phenomenon in which part of the active population cannot apply their labor force. The unemployed in the Russian Federation are recognized as citizens who do not have a job and earnings are registered with the employment service for the purpose of suitable work and are ready to start it.

Unemployment is generated in a market economy under the influence of competition in the labor market, increases during economic crises and the subsequent sharp reduction in demand for labor.

The main contingent of the unemployed in Russia are the elderly, women, and youth.

Types of unemployment: 1) Frictional unemployment has always existed, as it is associated with a change of job, and citizens in search of a better job go for it voluntarily. 2) Structural unemployment is associated with a change in the structure of production and, as a result, a mismatch between the supply of labor and the demand for it. 3) Cyclical unemployment occurs at certain points in the life of society: during a recession, depression, etc., when the demand for labor is very low. 4) voluntary - when people do not want to work because of low wages 5) hidden - when the number of workers in production exceeds the objectively necessary.

Two types of unemployment: frictional and structural are always present. Therefore, employment is considered full when the unemployment rate is equal to the sum of frictional and structural. It is called the natural rate of unemployment.

Unemployment leads to significant economic losses. As a result, a certain part of GDP is not produced. The relationship between GDP losses and unemployment reflects Okun's law: every 1% increase in unemployment above its natural rate leads to a 2.5% drop in GDP

Unemployment takes a variety of forms: temporary, seasonal, regional.

Measures to reduce unemployment are as follows:

1. Employment directly at the enterprise by creating new jobs (expansion or creation of subdivisions, retraining for other specialties, etc.);

2.Organization of public works (beautification of territories, forests and city streets, work at vegetable bases, cleaning of agricultural / household products);

3. Encouragement of private entrepreneurship and stimulation of self-employment of the population, development of small business (partnerships, cooperatives, farms);

4. Retraining and vocational training in scarce specialties and professions

5. Use of flexible forms of employment (home work, part-time work, week);

6. Broad information of the population about employment opportunities, holding job fairs, open days, etc. BARIN™

51.Inflation: essence, causes and types. Socio-economic consequences of inflation Inflation is a crisis state of the monetary system, due to the disproportionate development of social production, manifested primarily in a general and uneven rise in prices for goods and services, which leads to a redistribution of national income in favor of certain social groups.

FORMS OF MANIFESTATION.

1. Uneven rise in prices for goods and services, which leads to the depreciation of money, reducing their purchasing power.

2. depreciation of the national currency in relation to foreign ones.

3. increase in the price of gold, expressed in the national currency.

The nature of occurrence is a discrepancy between the circulation of commodity and money supply, most often generated by the release into circulation of excess cash and non-cash money that is not backed by goods.

EXTERNAL REASONS: rising prices on the world market for fuel and precious metals, unfavorable situation on the grain market in the context of significant grain imports.

INTERNAL CAUSES: deformation of the national economic structure, budget deficit, emission and increase in the velocity of money circulation.

TYPES OF INFLATION:

1). "Inflation of buyers" (demand inflation) Excess demand leads to a rise in prices.

2). "Inflation of sellers" (supply inflation, inflation of costs. In this case, the mechanism of inflation begins to unwind due to the fact that costs are growing (due to higher wages, higher prices for raw materials and fuel, etc.).

TYPES OF INFLATION.

1. Creeping inflation, which is characterized by relatively low rates of price growth, up to about ten percent or more per year. This kind of inflation is inherent in most countries with developed market economies. And she doesn't seem out of the ordinary. The average inflation rate in the countries of the European Community has been about 3 - 3.5% in recent years.

2. Runaway inflation, unlike creeping inflation, becomes difficult to control. Its growth rate is usually expressed in double digits (up to 100% per year).

3. Hyperinflation - the annual growth rate of prices over 100%. The peculiarity of hyperinflation is that it turns out to be practically uncontrollable; the usual functional relationships and the usual levers of price control do not work. The printing press is running at full capacity, incredible speculation is developing. Production is disorganized. To stop or slow down hyperinflation, one has to resort to emergency measures. But there are no unambiguous methods of combating hyperinflation.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF INFLATION.

1. The economic situation is deteriorating:

Output declines as fluctuating and rising prices make prospects uncertain;

The transfer of capital from production to trade and intermediary operations, where its turnover is faster, profits are greater and it is easier to evade taxation;

Increase in speculation as a result of a sharp change in prices;

Decrease in credit operations;

Depreciation of the financial resources of the state.

2. Social tension arises:

real incomes (the number of goods and services that can be bought with the amount of nominal income) decrease.

redistribution of national income to the detriment of the least well-to-do;

People who live on fixed incomes are especially affected by inflation: pensions, salaries of civil servants, benefits. To protect them, a benefit indexation system is needed; people living on non-fixed incomes can and do benefit from inflation;

devaluation of savings.

unexpected inflation benefits debtors at the expense of creditors. The recipient of the loan borrows "expensive" rubles, and returns - "cheap".

The distributive consequences of inflation would be less severe if people could anticipate inflation and be able to adjust their nominal incomes.

3. Some economists believe that inflation is inversely related to unemployment: the higher the inflation rate, the lower the unemployment rate, and that full employment can be achieved with a fairly modest inflation rate, ie. moderate creeping inflation could help revive the economy. BARIN™

52.Money: essence, types and functions. The evolution of money.Money is not a commodity, but an equivalent that measures the price of a commodity. Money used to be a commodity. natural exchange. The essence of money is manifested in their functions:

1. Money as a measure of value. This is the equating of goods to a certain amount of money, which gives a quantitative comparison of the magnitude of the value of the goods. The value of a commodity expressed in money is its price.

a) Money appears in an ideal form (it is imaginary money). Profit, loss, prices.

b) The scale of prices - the amount of gold.

1 ruble 1961 = 0.9981217. Since January 1, 1991 the gold parity of the ruble was abolished. Now the role of the ruble is played by the dollar.

2.Money as a means of circulation. They exchange goods and services between people, enterprises, countries. Money avoids the inconvenience of barter. Instant parting with money.

3.Money as a means of payment - non-cash money.

1) Cash is tax avoidance.

2) Cash payments contribute to inflation.

Money is the final stage in the process of exchange and acts as an independent embodiment of commodity value. For us, it is cash and non-cash money.

4. Money as a means of accumulation, savings and the formation of treasures.

5. World money.

The monetary system is a form of organization of monetary circulation in the country, i.e. the movement of money in cash and non-cash forms. It includes elements: the monetary unit, the scale of prices, the types of money in the country, the procedure for issuing and circulating money, as well as the state apparatus that regulates monetary circulation.

Types of money:

1. Cash:

1) Coins. They serve as currency. Enters the Central Bank.

2) Bank notes (banknotes) - national money. Their issue is carried out by the Central Bank.

3) Treasury notes - the same paper money, but issued directly by the state treasury - the ministry of finance.

4). Non-cash money is funds in bank accounts, various deposits (deposits) in banks, certificates of deposit, government securities. These deposits are called bank money. A check is a bill of exchange drawn on a bank and payable at sight.

5).Electronic money. Payment plastic cards are a monetary document certifying the existence of an account of its holder in a credit institution.

How much money is needed?

The quantity required for the circulation of money M is the sum of the prices of goods sold P divided by the number of revolutions of the monetary unit V.

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