Human capital is a special economic category, the main research problem of which is the specific nature of human capital, due to the totality of a person’s physical and mental abilities that determine his ability to work.

The most common definition of human capital is:

Human capital is a set of knowledge, skills and abilities used to meet the diverse needs of a person and society as a whole.

This approach reflects the main components of human capital, which are intelligence, health, knowledge, quality and productive work and quality of life.

It can be interpreted as a special capital in the form of intellectual abilities and practical skills acquired in the process of education and practical activities of a person. This interpretation points to the fact that the presence of human capital means the ability of people to participate in production.

Specific features of the concept of human capital are presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - The concept of human capital

The ability of people to participate in production determines the interest in the concept of human capital on the part of enterprises, since the effective use of human capital ensures economic growth, i.e. an increase in the volume of created utilities, therefore, the level of economic activity of the enterprise rises.

The concept of human capital is defined within several concepts, including economic theory, personnel management, which in turn distinguishes between human resource management and human capital management. Thus, human capital manifests itself directly as capital and as a special resource. From the point of view of the essential content of the nature of human capital, this concept affects a wide range of categories of people management science.

The difference in terminology is due to the inclusion in the concepts of "people management" and "personnel management" of two interrelated concepts of human capital and human resources. The philosophy and applied aspects of personnel management are decisive for both human capital and human resources, while managerial influence in the theory of people management is aimed at building human resource and human capital management systems.

The relationship between these aspects is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 - Relationship between aspects of people management

The theory of human capital was developed by economists, among whom the greatest contribution to the development was made by T. Schultz and his follower G. Becker. They laid the methodological foundations and basic elements of the theory of human capital.

The table shows several definitions of the concept of human capital by foreign authors.

The concept of human capital

		Definition of "human capital"
		All human resources and abilities are either innate or acquired. Each person is born with an individual complex of genes that determines his innate human potential. The valuable qualities acquired by a person, which can be enhanced by appropriate investments, we call human capital. Consider all human faculties either innate or acquired. Properties that are valuable and can be developed with appropriate investment will be human capital.
		Human capital is the human factor in an organization, it is the combined intelligence, skills and expertise that give an organization its distinctive character.
	Scarborough and Elias	The concept of human capital is most often viewed as a bridging concept, i.e. the relationship between human resource practices and the quality of a company's performance in terms of assets rather than business processes. Human capital is a non-standardized, implicit, dynamic, context-dependent and unique resource embodied in people.
	Davenport	Human capital is the knowledge, skills and abilities of people who create value. People have innate abilities, behavior and personal energy, and these elements form human capital. The owners of human capital are employees, not their employers.
		Human capital creates the added value that people make for an organization. Therefore, human capital is a condition of competitive advantage.

Schultz argued that "the well-being of people does not depend on land, technology or their efforts, but rather on knowledge." It was this qualitative aspect of the economy that he defined as "human capital". Its foreign apologists followed a similar approach, gradually expanding the interpretation of human capital.

In general, human capital is the main factor in the formation and development of the innovation economy and the knowledge economy, as the next stage of socio-economic development.

Human capital is the result of various types of human activity: education, upbringing, labor skills. The costs of acquiring knowledge are regarded as investments that form capital, which will subsequently bring its owner regular profit in the form of higher earnings, prestigious and interesting work, an increase in social status, etc.

The role of human capital is manifested through social institutions, which makes it possible to analyze not only social parameters, but also to study the influence of social factors on the market economy.

Theory of human capital

Human capital theory focuses on the added value that people can create for an organization. It views people as a valuable asset and emphasizes that an organization's investment in people generates returns that are worth the investment. Sustained competitive advantage can only be achieved when a firm has a pool of human resources that its competitors cannot imitate or replicate by hiring workers with competitively valuable knowledge and skills, many of which are difficult to articulate.

For an employer, investing in staff training and development is a means of attracting and retaining human capital, as well as a way to get higher returns on these investments. These revenues are expected to come from improved performance, flexibility and the ability to innovate as a result of improved knowledge and competence. Thus, the theory of human capital allows us to objectively state the following:

Knowledge, skills and abilities are the key factors determining the success of an individual company and the country's economy as a whole.

At the same time, there is a point of view that rejects the approach to human capital as an asset, by analogy with financial and fixed capital. Michael Armstrong in his book "Policy of Human Resource Management" pointed out the following aspect. "Employees, especially qualified employees, consider themselves independent agents who themselves have the right to choose how to manage their talents, time and energy. In this regard, companies cannot manage and, moreover, own human capital. Nevertheless, companies have certain opportunities to effectively use human capital through organizational and economic methods.

The essence of the theory of human capital is that the main form of wealth is the knowledge materialized in a person and his ability to work effectively.

Theory of human capital includes the following in this concept:

• a set of skills and abilities acquired by a person and his possession of certain knowledge in various fields;
• income growth leads to a person's interest in further investment in human capital;
• the feasibility of using human knowledge in various activities in order to increase labor productivity and production efficiency;
• the use of human capital leads to an increase in a person's income at the expense of his labor earnings in the future by giving up some current needs;
• all abilities, knowledge, skills and abilities are an inseparable part of the person himself;
• a necessary condition for the formation, accumulation and use of human capital is human motivation.

The main position of the theory of human capital is the assertion that the ability of an employee or group of employees to achieve a better result leads to an increase in their wages. For the accumulation and use of human capital, it is necessary to spend on health care, education, vocational, technical training and other activities that increase productivity and quality of work.

G. Becker introduced the term "special human capital". Special capital refers to only certain skills that a person can use in any particular type of activity. In particular, all professional skills of a person belong to special capital. Thus, "special or specific human capital is knowledge, skills that can be used only in a particular workplace, only in a particular company." This implies the need for special professional training, i.e. obtaining knowledge, acquiring skills and abilities that increase special human capital.

According to the theory of human capital, the process of its reproduction has three stages:

Stages of reproduction of human capital

		Description
	Formation	In the first stage, a person is educated. This is the basic stage for human capital, during which knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired. The further type of activity, place in society and the level of income of a person will depend on this. Education is the main investment in human capital, as there is a high correlation between the value of the education received and the value of human capital.
	Accumulation	Further accumulation of human capital occurs in the process of labor activity, enriching a person with professional skills that will help increase the efficiency of his labor activity and increase income. At this stage, special human capital grows.
	Usage	The use of human capital is expressed through the participation of a person in production, for which he receives a reward in the form of wages. At the same time, the size of human capital directly affects the level of income.

The theory of human capital indicates that this process is continuous and a person can make additional investments in his capital for the remuneration received, through further professional training, advanced training, etc. This will increase the level of income, which is the main incentive for the constant increase in human capital.

The structure of human capital depends on the nature of a person's activity, his specialization, including industry, the dynamics of labor income, etc. It should be noted that the structure of the human capital of a particular person may change over time. This happens depending on the actions taken by a person, the expansion of his knowledge and skills, or vice versa, specialization in one direction.

The value of human capital is defined as the present value of all future labor income of an individual, including income that will be paid out by pension funds. "The value of human capital is influenced by the age (work horizon) of a person, his income, possible income variability, taxes, the wage indexation rate for inflation, the amount of upcoming pension payments, as well as the income discount rate, which is partly determined by the type of human capital (more precisely, related with him risks)".

Thus, in the theory of human capital, this concept acts as a product of production, represents the knowledge, skills, skills that a person acquires in the process of learning and work, and like any other type of capital, has the ability to accumulate.

As a rule, the process of accumulation of human capital is longer than the process of accumulation of physical capital. These are processes: training at school, university, in production, advanced training, self-education, that is, continuous processes. If the accumulation of physical capital lasts, as a rule, 1–5 years, then the process of accumulation in human capital takes 12–20 years.

The accumulation of scientific and educational potential, which underlies human capital, has significant differences from the accumulation of material resources. At the initial stage, human capital, due to the gradual accumulation of production experience, has a low value, which does not decrease, but accumulates (unlike physical capital). The process of increasing the value of intellectual capital is the opposite of the process of depreciation of physical capital.

Human capital concept

Given the nature of the economic activity of modern companies, it can be noted that for them human capital is of particular importance, since it is through its use that companies can carry out innovative activities in any form. Production, commercial, management and general business projects lead to the creation and implementation of organizational and economic advantages that the company already has.

It proceeds from the position that human capital is a fundamentally important asset for enterprises, since the development and implementation of innovations without its presence is not possible in modern socio-economic conditions. Taken together, human capital is a key asset of the organization, without which it cannot exist in the conditions of the modern development of the national economic system.

Thus, according to the concept of human capital, for a modern company, this asset is of particular importance, as it allows you to effectively implement innovations in practice, introduce them into production, commercial, management activities, as well as create organizational and economic advantages.

Human capital reflects the potential available to ensure the growth of intensity, efficiency and rationalization of a person's professional activity. The presence of human capital implies the ability of people to participate in production.

Human capital concept considers this phenomenon as a special economic category, which is a combination of intellectual abilities, acquired knowledge, professional skills, and abilities that a person receives as a result of training, experience and practical activities.

At the same time, human capital, being a factor in the development of a person's potential, leads to a direct and indirect increase in labor productivity at existing enterprises, as well as an increase in the efficiency of their activities through the use of available human capital. In fact, human capital is a priority factor in the innovative type of economic development, since enterprises are able to achieve great success in their economic activities, developing it through the use of human capital.

In a holistic concept of human capital, approaches to its assessment are based on various models of an organizational and managerial nature that use qualitative and quantitative parameters for assessment. At the same time, the ability of an enterprise that evaluates human capital is usually limited by its ability to create such an assessment system that would allow an objective assessment of the available human capital, in addition, the needs for assessment may differ from enterprise to enterprise. It should be noted that the most formalized approaches are those based on quantitative parameters and cost indicators for assessing human capital, while purely managerial models do not allow an enterprise to assess it accurately enough, since they operate only with qualitative or natural characteristics. Hence, human capital concept operates with qualitative and quantitative characteristics of this asset.

Factors of human capital development

Factors in the development of human capital include the following combinations of individual and industrial activities:

1. The combination of natural abilities and physical energy acquired as a result of training and life activity with their demand in production with subsequent optimal costs.
2. The combination of knowledge and experience used by man in the field of social reproduction, with an increase in labor productivity and an increase in production efficiency.
3. The stock of knowledge, abilities and skills is accumulated in the process of an appropriate combination of production activities and the appropriate motivation of the employee.
4. The increase in individual incomes is combined with the reproduction of human capital in the broadest sense (additional education, professional retraining are reinvested in production activities).

There is a process of circulation: the actual human capital contributes to the efficiency of production, efficient production invests in the development of human capital. Consequently, the factors of development of human capital and their actual impact on the development of capital have the character of a cyclically repeating process. This process is endless, since the desire to increase individual and national wealth has no upper limit.

Factors in the development of human capital determine the algorithm on which the development of human capital is based, this algorithm is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 - Development of human capital

The process of human capital development is organizational and complex. The renewal of human capital is accompanied by the development of the capabilities and abilities of the individual with their subsequent implementation. Therefore, the motives that influence this process can be both material and spiritual.

It can be rightly argued that the main motives for the development of human capital are the following:

• physiological motives.
• security motives,
• social motives,
• reasons for respect
• self-esteem motives.

Due to the increase in the individual incomes of the owners of human capital, the economic growth of the country's economy occurs - this is how one can characterize the impact of human capital on economic growth.

The individual skills and experience that an individual is endowed with can lead him to make informed human rights decisions - such is the impact of security needs on the development of human capital. Reasonable rational decisions of most people create an atmosphere of security in society.

By increasing individual labor productivity, a person is able to perform the work that has great social value - this is how social motives influence the development of human capital.

New ideas, scientific developments, introduced into practice, increase respect for the people who proposed and implemented them - such is the influence of the motive of respect on the development of human capital.

The development of intelligence and the generation of new technical and technological ideas lead a person to self-respect.

The role of human capital for economic growth and enterprise development

The value of capital invested in material resources is reduced. The efficiency of agriculture and the food industry is less and less determined by material assets: the size of land ownership, industrial buildings, machines, equipment; to a greater extent, the value of enterprises is formed by "intangible resources" - ideas, entrepreneurial spirit and creativity of personnel, strategic and intellectual association of partners, etc. The main thing that resources are spent on is the generation of ideas, the search for information, its processing, their rapid practical application for the production of products and profits.

Indeed, in order to realize the desire to accelerate economic growth, eliminate poverty and move to an innovative type of development, it is necessary today to start creating a system that would stimulate investment in human capital. The accumulation of human capital and its subsequent use will solve the problems of economic growth at the level of the national economic system.

Among the features of accumulation and financial injections into human capital in Russia, it is necessary to note the positive trends in the growth of the number of workers who increase their human capital by improving their qualifications and acquiring new professional skills. This is definitely a plus. At the same time, the general low culture among workers and employers regarding the refinancing of human capital is a limiting condition for intensive economic growth. In modern conditions, human capital in Russia is the main factor in the intensification of economic growth.

Human capital, which itself is a factor in the development of enterprises, can act as an integrative basis for the growth of enterprises in modern conditions (Figure 4).

Figure 4 - Human capital as a factor in the growth and development of enterprises

Thus, a system of interrelated elements can be traced: the development of the economy and social factors in society makes it possible to "activate" the factors of human capital development, leading to an increase in labor productivity in enterprises, an increase in the efficiency of enterprises through the introduction of new technologies and investment in personnel. Consequently, the importance of human capital for an enterprise is manifested in its ability to ensure economic development. An economic entity succeeds by developing its production and commercial activities taking into account human capital.

Among the typical problems associated with the use of human capital in enterprises, the following can be distinguished:

First, the low level of development of the human capital assessment system, which is often limited to the traditional approach.

Secondly, the low degree of use of the human capital of the enterprise leads to a decrease in the efficiency and productivity of labor, the use of the working time fund.

Thirdly, there is often an insufficiently thought-out policy for the use of labor resources and human capital in general, or this policy does not exist at all.

Consequently, in modern conditions, it is required to implement measures at enterprises aimed at eliminating typical problems and shortcomings and forming objective approaches to the system for assessing, developing and using human capital.

conclusions

Human capital is a combination of the following factors:

1. qualities that a person brings to his work: intelligence, energy, positivity, reliability, devotion;
2. a person's ability to learn: giftedness, imagination, creative personality, ingenuity ("how to do things");
3. motivation of a person to share information and knowledge: team spirit and goal orientation.

Despite the fact that knowledge has always been one of the most important conditions for the development of production, the uniqueness of the current stage lies precisely in the accumulation of knowledge by mankind in such an amount in which it has passed into a new quality, becoming the main factor of production.

Literature

1. Shultz T. Investments in human capital. – M.: Publishing House of the Higher School of Economics, 2003.
2. Becker G. Human behavior: an economic approach. – M.: Publishing House of the Higher School of Economics, 2003.
3. Management / ed. V.E. Lankin. - Taganrog: TRTU, 2006.
4. Avdulova T.P. Management. – M.: GEOTAR-Media, 2013.
5. Alaverdov A.A. Management of human resources of the organization. – M.: Synergy, 2012.
6. Bazarov T.Yu. Personnel Management. – M.: Yurayt, 2014.
7. Vesnin V.R. Human resource management. – M.: Prospekt, 2014.
8. Golovanova E.N. Investments in the human capital of the enterprise. – M.: Infra-M, 2011.
9. Gruzkov I.V. Reproduction of human capital in the conditions of the formation of the innovative economy of Russia. Theory, methodology, management. – M.: Economics, 2013.
10. Mau V.A. Development of human capital. – M.: Delo, 2013.
11. Hugheslid M. How to manage human capital to implement the strategy. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2012.

Introduction

Human capital is a set of qualities that determine productivity and can become sources of income for a person, family, enterprise and society.

For the first time, the phrase was used by Theodor Schultz, and his follower, Gary Becker, developed this idea, substantiating the effectiveness of investments in human capital and formulating an economic approach to human behavior.

The category of "human capital" is used when considering a specific person, because it was the opportunity to receive additional income from investments in one's development that gave grounds to draw a parallel between physical and human capital.

Initially, human capital was understood only as a set of investments in a person that increases his ability to work - education and professional skills. In the future, the concept of human capital has expanded significantly.

The latest calculations made by the World Bank experts include consumer spending - the cost of families for food, clothing, housing, education, health care, culture, government spending for these purposes.

The purpose of this work: to study the features of the formation and development of human capital.

In this case, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

show the features of the formation of human capital.

The work consists of an introduction, two chapters of the main part, a conclusion and a list of references.

. Human capital: concept, structure

For the effective management of any system, it is necessary to clearly define its resources and highlight the features of the impact on them. At present, human capital is becoming the most important resource, its adequate and effective management becomes the key to the successful functioning of enterprises, industries, and the state as a whole.

The formation of the theory of human capital began in the XVIII-XIX centuries by such economists as W. Petty, A. Smith, K. Marx. For the first time, human capital was calculated just by William Petty in his book “Political Arithmetic” (1676), while everything real in England was estimated at 250 million pounds sterling, and the cost of the population of England, according to his calculations, was 417 million pounds sterling. However, with the development of machine production, the value of a person decreases - if earlier the skills of the worker were decisive, and not the means of his labor, then with the improvement of machines and production, a person began to be considered as an addition to the machine, “simple labor force”. The ideas of W. Petty were developed by Adam Smith, according to which the dignity of people lies in their natural differences, and upbringing and education deepen these differences, thereby forming a specification. If a person correctly understands his destiny, then he begins to specialize in the area that brings him the greatest income, since he has comparative advantages in it. The division of labor deepens and consolidates this specification.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, the focus of attention of economists shifted to the problems of efficient business organization, the creation of a quality workforce with a reasonable use of resources. These issues were developed by J. McCulloch, I. Tyunen, I. Fisher, who believe that the person himself is capital, as well as J. Mill, N. Senior, F. List, from the point of view of which the capital is not the person himself, but only inherited and acquired qualities and abilities. Also in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a sharp increase in labor productivity as a result of the technological revolution. As a result, the number of highly skilled workers has increased, and unskilled labor, such as child labor, has ceased to be used at all. It was at this time that the foundations of the scientific organization of labor and management were laid by F.U. Taylor, G. Ford began to use the theory of welfare capitalism in practice, reducing staff turnover at enterprises and introducing mass production, and E. Mayo developed issues of industrial psychology, which later formed the basis of the doctrine of "human relations".

In the economic literature, despite lengthy studies, there is no certainty regarding the essence of the category of human capital and different views are noted. Among the debatable provisions within the framework of the theory of human capital, the following are considered: the relationship of the concept of "human capital" with a living human personality, the ratio of human and physical capital, the definition of human capital from the point of view of the theory of factors of production.

The very term "human capital" was the first in the scientific literature to use this term T. Schultz, and G. Becker translated this concept to the micro level. According to G. Becker, the human capital of an enterprise is a set of skills, knowledge and skills of a person.

There is an extended interpretation of the concept of "human capital". Some economists include in it not only the productive qualities of individuals and the ability to earn income, but also social, psychological, ideological and moral and ethical qualities (L. Thurow, J. Kendrick, V.I. Martsinkevich and others). The virtue of the expansionary concept of human capital is as follows:

firstly, within the framework of this approach, human capital is interpreted from the standpoint of social relations;

secondly, human capital is a value not only for the individual, but also for society. It has a direct interest in human investment projects that change its current and future needs and preferences so that they are compatible with the needs and preferences of both the individual firm and society itself. Therefore, human capital is considered not only as an individual, but also as a social good;

thirdly, the concept of social capital makes it possible to determine that collective interaction is a powerful factor in the growth of both social and individual productivity.

In general, all definitions of human capital can be divided into two groups that reflect its various characteristics:

the first group interprets human capital as the totality of a person's reserves of abilities and qualities used in the process of producing goods;

the second group characterizes human capital from the investment side, emphasizing the fact of their accumulation as a result of investments in a person.

An analysis of existing positions allows us to state that in a narrow sense, human capital is usually understood as a set or stock of human qualities, among which knowledge and productive abilities prevail.

Thus, the evolution of the views of economists went from the concept of "labor force" to the concept of "human capital" for 3 centuries, and the following definition is currently used: human capital is a certain stock of health, knowledge, skills formed as a result of investments and accumulated by a person. , abilities, motivations that are expediently used in a particular area of ​​social reproduction, contribute to the growth of labor productivity and production efficiency and thereby affect the growth of earnings (income) of a given person.

Considering human capital as one of the main resources of the economy, we note its main features in comparison with other types of capital:

Human capital can be both increased and decreased over time. The increase in capital requires efforts both from the bearer of capital - a person, and from society, while the effectiveness of investments in HC also depends both on the individual to a greater extent and on the external environment. The decrease in human capital, by analogy with physical capital, is associated with physical and moral depreciation, so the human capital can also be amortized.

Investments in human capital are more long-term, the return on them is also longer and higher; For society, the return on investment in HC is not only economic, but also social. At the same time, the income received by a person belongs entirely to him, he manages them independently.

The functioning of human capital depends on the person himself, on his personal interest in this.

Some researchers note the inalienability of human capital from its carrier, but modern sources distinguish alienable types of human capital. However, both types of HC are characterized by a low degree of liquidity compared to other types of capital in industry.

The structure of human capital consists of a combination of elements such as innate skills and abilities, natural abilities, education, health, intellectual capital, motivation to work and study, mobility, professional skills, abilities and competencies acquired by a person in the process of learning or working. At the same time, there is no single structure of HC in the scientific literature. Different scientists include a different number of elements (types) in the structure of HC, while the classification of HC types in the scientific literature is reflected for different reasons and for different purposes. For example, if this concerns the first two of the listed elements, then at present there is no unambiguous approach to whether they should be considered part of human capital or allocated separately. The model of human capital, which includes knowledge, skills, social identity, abilities and cultural and moral potential, can be seen in Fig. 1.

Figure 1 - Model of the composition of human capital

The most common typology of human capital today is as follows:

) inalienable types of human capital (illiquid capital): health capital (biophysical); cultural and moral capital; labor capital; intellectual capital; organizational and entrepreneurial capital;

) alienable types of human capital (liquid capital): social capital; client capital (brand capital); structural capital; organizational capital.

In our opinion, physical skills should be added to inalienable capital, thanks to which a person can do work, this is especially important for non-intellectual labor and underdeveloped countries. Also, by analogy with intellectual capital, emotional intelligence should be included in the composition of inalienable human capital, representing all non-cognitive abilities, knowledge and competence that enable a person to successfully cope with various life situations. It consists of 5 main components, namely: intrapersonal skills, i.e. the ability to understand and manage their emotions; social skills or interpersonal skills; human ability to adequately, timely, flexibly and effectively respond to changes; people's ability to cope with stress; the latter group characterizes a positive attitude towards life. Creativity, entrepreneurial spirit, initiative can also be identified among the personality traits that positively affect human capital, which are not included in any of the above elements.

Also, in our opinion, human capital should include the ability to effectively build interpersonal relationships, as well as the ability of people to find a common language with each other, bind individuals into a team or effectively participate in the activities of an existing team, so this quality does not always correlate with leadership or charisma, but is closely connected with the social and cultural-moral types of capital.

2. Features of the formation of human capital

The development of the material, intellectual and spiritual capabilities of a person, the accumulation of human capital is an important task of the state, because the country's economic growth depends on the degree of human capital formation: the more potential each member of society has, the higher the intellectual resource of the whole country, the more dynamic the economic growth rate, the greater the society's opportunities. The development of human potential involves:

creating favorable conditions for the development of the abilities of each person, improving the living conditions of Russian citizens and the quality of the social environment;

increasing the competitiveness of human capital and the social sectors of the economy that provide it.

Currently, psychologists, sociologists, and economists are dealing with the problems of human capital formation at three levels:

at the micro level - at the level of an individual;

at the mesolevel - the level of enterprises and organizations;

at the macro level - the level of the state.

The structure of human capital can be represented as follows (Figure 2).

Figure 2 - The process of formation of social human capital

HC at the macro level is the human capital accumulated by the whole society, which is the national wealth of the country. At the macro level, the HC values ​​of all regions of the country are combined.

Cheka as a key point of development is noted in all strategic documents of the regions of the Russian Federation, since it is at the mesolevel that the social life of the population is created and the economic activity of enterprises is implemented.

At the regional level, the HC values ​​of individual enterprises are combined into a single whole. The total HC of enterprises determines the level of the socio-economic situation in the region. The HC of an enterprise is not a simple addition of employees, but the sum of knowledge, information, talent, and abilities that all employees have in the aggregate. It is human capital, together with other factors of production, that activates the production process and determines the effectiveness of the enterprise.

Individual human HCs are continuously grouped into subsystems with a hierarchical structure. The interconnectedness of individual capitals in interweaving forms social capital. From fig. 2 shows that the human capital of each individual turns into the wealth of the enterprise - region - country. An individual who has a certain stock of knowledge, skills and other personal abilities enters the labor market. In enterprises, it functions as a subject that generates income in one form or another. A region or a separate administrative-territorial entity (city, township) acts as a supporting social link. Any private, municipal, state, commercial, non-commercial enterprise in the region creates a social or economic basis for people's lives. There is a process of continuous movement: the innate and formed capital of a person contributes to the development of the enterprise, enterprises create socio-economic conditions for the growth of human capital. Knowledge and skills come out of a person (body and brain) into his living environment in order to ensure a high quality of life and comfortable conditions for intellectual activity.

The formation of human capital takes on various types, forms and goes through various stages of the human life cycle. The factors on which the formation of human capital depends can be combined into the following groups: socio-demographic, institutional, integration, socio-mental, environmental, economic, industrial, demographic, socio-economic (Fig. 3).

Figure 3 - Groups of factors that form human capital

The formation of human capital is the process of searching, renewing and improving high-quality productive characteristics of a person with which he acts in social production. The formation of human capital occurs through the creation of comfortable living conditions: income growth, good roads, landscaped yards, modern medical and educational services, cultural environment. And can be achieved through the use of state policy in the field of health, education, culture and training.

The conceptual model of the formation of human capital in the socio-economic system at various levels of its development: society, region, enterprise is shown in fig. 4.

Figure 4 - The concept of the human capital formation model

The state of human capital is reflected in the indicators of the Human Capital Index, related to the level of education, health and nutrition:

percentage of the population that is undernourished;

mortality rate among children under five years of age;

general indicator of children's education in secondary school;

adult literacy rate.

In order to form human capital, the following is provided:

increasing the affordability of housing for citizens through mortgage mechanisms, promoting the use of financial instruments to stimulate the development of the housing market as a whole;

increasing information transparency and openness of the consumer lending market;

expanding opportunities for citizens to use educational loans;

assistance in increasing the level of protection of the quality of life and personal well-being of citizens through life and property insurance;

promoting the development of additional pension insurance mechanisms.

Thus, the formation of human capital is a continuous continuous process by which the individual reaches his highest potential and striving to integrate and optimize the combination of current processes, such as education, job search, employment, skills formation and personality development.

The formation of human capital is a long process (15-25 years). Each generation builds its human capital from scratch.

The formation of human capital begins before the birth of a child. At the age of 3-4, every child develops a culture of completely free access to any information. The development of a child's abilities gives him the opportunity to freely manage his talents, to put as many concepts, skills, and abilities into his toolkit as possible. The development of the child is influenced by the results of his education, which later may affect the development of the labor market. The amount of human capital acquired in the learning process depends on innate abilities.

The main period for the formation of human capital is the age from 13 to 23 years. This is a period of hormonal explosion, puberty, when nature gives a growing body a surge of tremendous energy. This energy needs to be transformed at the stadium in order to improve health, on the student bench and in the theater, in order to receive education and culture, learn to set and achieve goals in life, and overcome obstacles. The formed human capital provides a person with a stable income, status in society, self-sufficiency.

Thus, a feature of the process of forming human capital is that:

life expectancy makes the acquisition of human capital relatively more attractive to people of all ability levels;

increased innate abilities facilitate the acquisition of human capital.

Knowledge and skills embodied in a person are difficult to separate from human health, which also determines labor productivity. Public health policy is the key to effective human capital formation. Access to medical care and proper nutrition increase life expectancy and help people become more efficient at work. As the life expectancy of the population increases, it is beneficial for society to use the experience and skill of people, which allows them to do their job more efficiently.

The basis for the formation of human capital is the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. Therefore, a key element in the formation of human capital is education and professional development. Highly qualified specialists form a “comfortable cycle of mankind”, as they help to achieve economical and efficient work and production growth in various industries at all levels of management, as well as enrich the national culture.

“In our time, competitive advantages are no longer determined either by the size of the country, or by rich natural resources, or by the power of financial capital. Now everything is decided by the level of education and the amount of knowledge accumulated by society.”

The classic of modern management, Peter F. Drucker, noted that “the most valuable asset of any company of the 20th century was its production equipment. The most valuable asset of any organization in the 21st century, whether commercial or not, will be its knowledge workers and their productivity.”

Education contributes to the improvement of the quality of life of people and the exercise by them of their civil rights and obligations. Education enriches a person's life by developing cognitive and social skills and informing people about their civic rights and responsibilities.

Educated people are more skilled and capable of doing their job effectively, have a wider arsenal of tools to solve problems and overcome difficulties. They are also better suited to more demanding jobs, which are often associated with higher wages and greater economic benefits.

At the same time, workers with higher education are more productive than those with secondary education. Workers with a secondary education are more productive than those with a primary education, and workers with a primary education are more productive than those with no education.

The data of Rosstat also testify to the high role of education. So, in 2012, the share of employed specialists with higher professional education in the sectors of the national economy was 30.4% (in 2002 - 23.4%), with secondary professional education - 26.2% (32.2%). At the same time, the proportion of students studying in higher professional educational institutions increased from 5948 thousand people to 6074 thousand people during this time.

Thus, human capital refers to the knowledge and skills embodied in a person, which play an important role in determining labor productivity and the ability to absorb new knowledge and master new technologies and innovations.

Building human capital encourages investment, stimulates the development and deployment of new technologies, and increases productivity per worker.

Conclusion

human capital economy worker

Summarizing the above, the following conclusions can be drawn:

One of the best options for the development of the country's economy is the activation, maintenance and development of industry in the country, which is possible only with a significant focus on the problem of human capital.

Human capital is a combination of natural abilities, acquired knowledge, skills in the process of production activities, as well as mobility, motivation and physical condition of a person. In other words, human capital is such a set of competencies that is expediently used by a person in one or another area of ​​social reproduction and contributes to the growth of labor productivity and production efficiency.

Investments in human capital are the most profitable, in comparison with other forms of capital, since they bring a fairly significant in volume and long-term economic and social effect. The development of human capital occurs throughout the entire social activity of a person through constant investment both at the individual level and at the level of the enterprise and the state. With the correct formation and rational development of the existing human potential, the formation of the optimal structure of human capital, the determination of the necessary proportions of physical and human capital in the country, as well as the effective long-term functioning of such human capital support institutions as education, healthcare, social protection and population guarantees, income increases , the level and quality of life of both people and the country as a whole, and is also an important factor in improving labor efficiency.

List of sources used

1.Borodina E. Human capital as the main source of economic growth / E. Borodina // Economics. - 2005. - No. 1. - P.19-27.

.Dobrynin A.N. Human capital in a transitive economy / A.N. Dobrynin, S.A. Dyatlov. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1999. - 309 p.

.Drucker P.F. Tasks of management in the XXI century (translated from English) / P.F. Drucker. - M.: Williams, 2004. - 725 p.

.Kamenskikh E.A. Conceptualization of the formation of human capital in the socio-economic system of the region / E.A. Kamenskikh // Scientific communications. Economics and Management. - 2010. - No. 5. - S. 102-110.

.Klimov S.M. Intellectual resources of the organization / S.M. Klimov. - St. Petersburg: IVESEP, 2000. - 168 p.

.Korogodin I.T. Social and labor system: questions of methodology and theory. Monograph / I.T. Korogodin. - M.: PALEOTIN, 2009. - 158 p.

.Liginchuk G.G. Fundamentals of management. Educational-methodical complex / G.G. G.G. Liginchuk. - M.: MIEMP, 2012. - 160 p.

.Nesterov L. National wealth and human capital / L. Nesterov, G. Ashirova // VE. - 2003.- No. 2. - S. 17.

.Nikolashin V.N. Organization of personnel work. Educational-methodical complex / V.N. Nikolashin. - M.: MIEMP, 2012. - 315 p.

.Noskova K.A. Formation, accumulation and development of human capital / K.A. Noskova // Humanitarian scientific research. - 2013. - No. 5. - S. 33.

.Nureyev R.M. Human capital and its development in modern Russia / P.M. Nureyev // Social sciences and modernity. - 2009. - No. 4. - P.5-21.

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.Tuguskina G. Factors affecting the cost of human capital / G. Tuguskina // Kadrovik. - 2011. - No. 3. - S. 68 - 75.

.Human capital: content and types, assessment and stimulation: monograph / Ed. Doctor of Economics, Professor V.T. Smirnova. - M.: Mashinostroenie, 2005. - 513 p.

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Human capital- a set of knowledge, abilities, skills used to meet the diverse needs of a person and society as a whole.

Human capital in a broad sense, it is an intensive productive factor of economic development, the development of society and the family, including the educated part of the labor force, knowledge, the tools of intellectual and managerial labor, the environment and labor activity that ensure the effective and rational functioning of human capital as a productive development factor.

Briefly: Human capital- this is intelligence, health, knowledge, high-quality and productive work and quality of life.

Human capital is the main factor in the formation and development of the innovation economy and knowledge economy as the next highest stage of development.

Use the classification of human capital:

1. individual human capital.
2. The human capital of the firm.
3. national human capital.

In the national wealth, human capital in developed countries is from 70 to 80%. In Russia, about 50%.

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Problems of human capital in the modern world

According to I. G. Shestakov, “In the modern global world, thanks to universal education and universal testing, we find ourselves in a situation where all precious human resources are brought to the surface, for general review, choice and plunder. It's not just about the brain drain, but about the gene pool as a whole. Under these conditions, Russia should think about the most important resource - human capital. If earlier Russia was represented by peasants, among whom nuggets were hidden - human capital, then at present there are almost no resources.

Background

Elements of the theory of human capital (HC) have existed since ancient times, when the first knowledge and the education system were formed.

In the scientific literature, the concept of human capital (Human Capital) appeared in the publications of the second half of the 20th century in the works of American economists Theodore Schultz and Gary Becker (1992). For creating the foundations of the theory of human capital (HC), they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics - Theodor Schultz in 1979, Gary Becker in 1992. He made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of human capital and a native of the Minsk and Kharkov provinces of the Russian Empire - Simon (Semyon) Kuznets, who received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1971

The theory of human capital is based on the achievements of institutional theory, neoclassical theory, neo-Keynesianism and other particular economic theories. Its appearance was the response of economic and related sciences to the demand for real economy and life. There was a problem of in-depth understanding of the role of man and the accumulated results of his intellectual activity on the pace and quality of development of society and the economy. The impetus for the creation of the theory of human capital was the statistical data on the growth of the economies of the developed countries of the world, which exceeded the calculations based on the classical growth factors. An analysis of the real processes of development and growth in modern conditions has led to the establishment of human capital as the main productive and social factor in the development of the modern economy and society.

T. Schultz, G. Becker, E. Denison, R. Solow, J. Kendrick, S. Kuznets, S. Fabrikant, I. Fisher, R. Lucas and other economists, sociologists and historians contributed to the development of the modern theory of human capital .

The concept of human capital is a natural development and generalization of the concepts of the human factor and human resource, however, human capital is a broader economic category.

The economic category "human capital" was formed gradually, and at the first stage it was limited by the knowledge and ability of a person to work. Moreover, for a long time, human capital was considered only a social factor of development, that is, a costly factor, from the point of view of economic theory. It was believed that investments in upbringing, in education, are unproductive and costly. In the second half of the 20th century, the attitude towards human capital and education gradually changed dramatically.

Broad definition of human capital

The concept of human capital (Human Capital) appeared in the publications of the second half of the 20th century in the works of American economists Theodor Schulz "The Theory of Human Capital" (1960) and his follower Gary Becker "Human Capital: Theoretical and Empirical Analysis" (1964). For the development of the theory of human capital (HC) in 1992, G. Becker was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics. Simon (Semyon) Kuznets, a native of Russia, who received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1971, made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of Cheka.

The founders of the theory of human capital (HC) gave it a narrow definition, which has expanded over time and continues to expand, including all new components of HC. As a result, HC has become a complex intensive factor in the development of the modern economy - the knowledge economy.

Currently, on the basis of the theory and practice of human capital, a successful paradigm for the development of the United States and leading European countries is being formed and improved. Based on the theory of the Cheka, which was lagging behind, Sweden modernized its economy and returned its leadership position in the world economy in the 2000s. Finland, in a historically short period of time, has managed to move from a predominantly resource-based economy to an innovative economy. And to create their own competitive high technologies, without giving up the deepest processing of their main natural wealth - the forest. Managed to reach the first place in the world in terms of the competitiveness of the economy as a whole. Moreover, the Finns created their innovative technologies and products on the income from timber processing into goods with high added value.

All this took place not because the theory and practice of human capital realized a kind of magic wand, but because it became the answer of economic theory and practice to the challenges of the time, to the challenges of the innovative economy (knowledge economy) emerging in the second half of the 20th century and venture science. -technical business.

The development of science, the formation of the information society to the fore as components of a complex intensive development factor - human capital - have brought forward knowledge, education, health, the quality of life of the population and the leading specialists themselves, who determine the creativity and innovation of national economies.

In the context of the globalization of the world economy, in the conditions of free flow of any capital, including the Cheka, from country to country, from region to region, from city to city in the conditions of intense international competition, the accelerated development of high technologies.

And huge advantages in creating stable conditions for the growth of the quality of life, the creation and development of the knowledge economy, the information society, the development of civil society have countries with accumulated high-quality human capital. That is, countries with an educated, healthy and optimistic population, competitive world-class professionals in all types of economic activity, in education, science, management and other areas.

Understanding and choosing human capital as the main development factor literally dictates a systematic and integrated approach in developing a development concept or strategy and linking all other private strategies and programs with them. This dictate follows from the essence of the national Cheka as a multicomponent development factor. Moreover, this diktat emphasizes the living conditions, work and quality of the tools of specialists that determine the creativity and creative energy of the country.

The core of the Cheka, of course, was and still is a man, but now he is an educated, creative and enterprising person, with a high level of professionalism. Human capital itself determines in the modern economy the main share of the national wealth of countries, regions, municipalities and organizations. At the same time, the share of unskilled labor in the GDP of developed and developing countries, including Russia, is getting smaller, and in technologically advanced countries it is already vanishingly small.

Therefore, the division of labor into unskilled labor and labor requiring education, special skills and knowledge is gradually losing its original meaning and economic content when defining human capital, which the founders of the human capital theory identified with educated people and their accumulated knowledge and experience. The concept of human capital as an economic category is constantly expanding along with the development of the global information community and the knowledge economy.

Human capital in a broad definition is an intensive productive factor in the development of the economy, society and family, including the educated part of the labor force, knowledge, tools for intellectual and managerial work, the environment and labor activity that ensure the effective and rational functioning of human capital as a productive development factor.

Briefly: Human capital is intelligence, health, knowledge, quality and productive labor and quality of life.

The composition of the human capital includes investments and returns from them in the tools of intellectual and managerial labor, as well as investments in the environment for the functioning of the human capital, ensuring its effectiveness.

Human capital is a complex and distributed intensive development factor. It, like blood vessels in a living organism, permeates the entire economy and society. And ensures their functioning and development. Or, on the contrary, it depresses with its low quality. Therefore, there are objective methodological difficulties with assessing its individual economic efficiency, its individual productivity, its individual contribution to GDP growth and to improving the quality of life. HC, through specialists and IT, contributes to the development and growth of the economy everywhere, in all types of economic and industrial activities.

Cheka contributes to improving the quality and productivity of labor in all types of life and life support. In all types of economic activity, management, educated professionals determine the productivity and efficiency of labor. And knowledge, high-quality work, qualifications of specialists play a decisive role in the effectiveness of the functioning and work of institutions and organizations of all forms and types.

The main drivers of HC development are competition, investment, and innovation.

The innovative sector of the economy, the creative part of the elite, society, and the state are sources of accumulation of high-quality human capital, which determines the direction and pace of development of the country, region, medical organizations, and organizations. On the other hand, the accumulated high-quality human capital underlies the innovation system and economy (IE).

The development processes of HC and IE constitute a single process of formation and development of the innovation-information society and its economy.

What is the difference between human capital and human potential? The human potential index of a country or region is calculated according to three indicators: GDP (or GRP), life expectancy and literacy of the population. That is, it is a narrower concept than the Cheka. The latter absorbs the concept of human potential as its enlarged component.

How is human capital different from labor resources? The labor force is directly people, educated and uneducated, who determine skilled and unskilled labor. Human capital is a much broader concept and includes, in addition to labor resources, accumulated investments (taking into account their depreciation) in education, science, health, security, quality of life, in the tools of intellectual labor and in the environment that ensures the effective functioning of the human capital.

Investments in the formation of an effective elite, including in the organization of competition, are among the most important investments in Cheka. It has been known since the time of the classics of science D. Toynbee and M. Weber that it is the elite of the people that determines the vector of the direction of its development. Forward, side or back.

An entrepreneurial resource is a creative resource, an intellectual resource for the development of the economy. Therefore, investment in an entrepreneurial resource is an investment in the development of human capital in terms of increasing its constructiveness, creativity and innovation. In particular, business angels are a necessary component of the HC.

Investments in institutional services are aimed at creating comfortable conditions for servicing the state. institutions of citizens, including doctors, teachers, scientists, engineers, that is, the core of the Cheka, which helps to improve the quality of their life and work.

With such an expansion of the economic category “human capital”, it comes out, as already noted, from the “flesh” of a person. People's brains do not work effectively with a poor quality of life, with low security, with an aggressive or oppressive environment for living and working.

The foundation on which innovative economies and information societies are created is the rule of law, the high quality of human capital, the high quality of life and an efficient industrial economy, which has smoothly transformed into a post-industrial or innovative economy.

National human capital includes social, political capital, national intellectual priorities, national competitive advantages and natural potential of the nation.

National human capital is measured by its value, calculated by various methods - by investment, by the discount method and others.

The national human capital makes up more than half of the national wealth of each of the developing countries and over 70-80% of the developed countries of the world.

Features of national human capital determined the historical development of world civilizations and countries of the world. National human capital in the 20th and 21st centuries has been and remains the main intensive factor in the development of the economy and society.

Estimates of the cost of national human capital of the countries of the world

The cost of the national human capital of the countries of the world on the basis of the cost method was estimated by the specialists of the World Bank.

Estimates of the components of the human capital for the costs of the state, families, entrepreneurs and various funds were used. They make it possible to determine the current annual costs of society for the reproduction of human capital.

In the United States, the value of human capital at the end of the 20th century was $95 trillion, or 77% of the national wealth (NW), 26% of the global total value of human capital.

The value of the world human capital amounted to 365 trillion dollars or 66% of world wealth, 384% of the US level.

For China, these figures are: $ 25 trillion, 77% of the total NB, 7% of the world's total HC and 26% of the US level. For Brazil, respectively: $9 trillion; 74%, 2% and 9%. For India: 7 trillion; 58%, 2%; 7%.

For Russia, the figures are: $30 trillion; 50 %; 8 %; 32%.

The G7 countries and the EEC accounted for 59% of the world's HC for the reference period, which is 78% of their national wealth.

Human capital in most countries exceeded half of the accumulated national wealth (with the exception of the OPEC countries). The HC percentage is significantly affected by the cost of natural resources. In particular, for Russia, the share of the cost of natural resources is relatively large.

The bulk of the world's human capital is concentrated in the developed countries of the world. This is due to the fact that investments in HC in these countries over the past half century have significantly outpaced investments in physical capital. In the United States, the ratio of "investment in people" and productive investment (social spending on education, health care and social security as a % of productive investment) in 1970 was 194%, and in 1990 318%.

There are certain difficulties in the comparative assessment of the cost of HC in countries with different levels of development. The human capital of an underdeveloped country and a developed country has a significantly different productivity per unit of capital, as well as a very different quality (for example, a significantly different quality of education and health care). To assess the effectiveness of national human capital, factor analysis methods are used using country-specific international indices and indicators. At the same time, the values ​​of the HC efficiency coefficient for different countries differ significantly, which is close to the differences in their labor productivity. The methodology for measuring national human capital is set out in the work.

The cost of Russian national human capital has been declining over the past 20 years due to low investment in it and the degradation of education, medicine, and science.

National human capital and historical development of countries and civilizations

The economic category "human capital" was formed gradually. And at the first stage, the composition of the Cheka included a small number of components - upbringing, education, knowledge, health. Moreover, for a long time, human capital was considered only a social factor of development, that is, a costly factor, from the point of view of the theory of economic growth. It was believed that investments in upbringing, in education, are unproductive and costly. In the second half of the 20th century, the attitude towards human capital and education gradually changed dramatically.

In reality, it was investments in education and science that in the past ensured the outstripping development of Western civilization - Europe and North America in comparison with China, India and other countries. Studies of the development of civilizations and countries in past centuries show that even then human capital was one of the main development factors that predetermined the success of some countries and the failure of others.

Western civilization at a certain historical stage won the global historical competition with more ancient civilizations precisely due to the faster growth of human capital, including education, in the Middle Ages. At the end of the 18th century, Western Europe surpassed China (and India) by one and a half times in per capita GDP and twice in terms of literacy. The latter circumstance, multiplied by economic freedom and then democracy, became the main factor in the economic success of Europeans, as well as the United States and other Anglo-Saxon countries.

The influence of human capital on economic growth is also indicative on the example of Japan. In the land of the Rising Sun, which has pursued isolationist policies for centuries, the level of human capital has always been high, including education and life expectancy. In 1913, the average number of years of adult education in Japan was 5.4 years, in Italy 4.8, in the USA 8.3 years, and the average life expectancy was 51 years (roughly the same as in Europe and the USA). In Russia, these figures were equal: 1-1.2 years and 33-35 years. Therefore, Japan, in terms of the level of starting human capital, turned out to be ready in the 20th century to make a technological breakthrough and become one of the most advanced countries in the world.

Human capital is an independent complex intensive development factor, in fact, the foundation of GDP growth in combination with innovations and high technologies in modern conditions. The difference between this complex intensive factor and natural resources, classical labor and ordinary capital is the need for constant increased investment in it and the existence of a significant time lag in the return on these investments. In the developed countries of the world in the late 1990s, about 70% of all funds were invested in human capital, and only about 30% in physical capital. Moreover, the main share of investments in human capital in the advanced countries of the world is carried out by the state. And this is precisely one of its most important functions in terms of state regulation of the economy.

An analysis of the processes of changing the technological structures of the economy and types of societies shows that human capital, the cycles of its growth and development are the main factors in the generation of innovative waves of development and the cyclical development of the world economy and society.

With a low level and quality of human capital, investments in high-tech industries do not give returns. The relatively rapid success of the Finns, Irish, Japanese, Chinese (Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, China, etc.), Koreans, new European developed countries (Greece, Spain, Portugal) confirm the conclusion that the foundation for the formation of human capital is a high culture the bulk of the population of these countries.

Structure, type and methods for assessing the value of human capital

Structure

Once upon a time, upbringing, education and fundamental science were considered a costly burden for the economy. Then the understanding of their importance as factors in the development of the economy and society changed. Both education, and science, and mentality as components of human capital, and the Cheka itself as a whole, have become the main factor in the growth and development of the modern economy, the development of society and the improvement of the quality of life. The core of the Cheka, of course, was and remains a man. Human capital itself now determines the main share of the national wealth of countries, regions, municipalities and organizations.

With the development and complication of the concept and economic category "human capital", its structure became more complicated.

Human capital is formed primarily through investments in improving the level and quality of life of the population. Including - in upbringing, education, health, knowledge (science), entrepreneurial ability and climate, in the information support of labor, in the formation of an effective elite, in the security of citizens and business and economic freedom, as well as in culture, art and other components. The Cheka is also formed due to the influx from other countries. Or it decreases due to its outflow, which is observed so far in Russia. Cheka is not a simple number of people, workers of simple labor. Cheka is professionalism, knowledge, information service, health and optimism, law-abiding citizens, creativity and efficiency of the elite, etc.

Investments in the components of the human capital make up its structure: upbringing, education, health, science, personal security, entrepreneurial ability, investment in the training of the elite, tools for intellectual work, information services, etc.

Types of human capital

Human capital can be divided according to the degree of efficiency, as a productive factor, into negative HC (destructive) and positive (creative) HC. Between these extreme states and the components of the total human capital, there are intermediate states and components of the human capital in terms of efficiency.

This is a part of the accumulated human capital, which does not give any useful return on investment in it for society, the economy and hinders the growth of the quality of life of the population, the development of society and the individual. Not every investment in upbringing and education is useful and increases HC. An incorrigible criminal, a hired killer is an investment in them lost for society and family. A significant contribution to the accumulated negative HC is made by corrupt officials, criminals, drug addicts, and excessive drinkers. And just loafers, loafers and thieving people. And, on the contrary, a significant share of the positive part of the Cheka is made by workaholics, professionals, world-class specialists. The negative accumulated human capital is formed on the basis of the negative aspects of the nation's mentality, on the low culture of the population, including its market components (in particular, the ethics of work and entrepreneurship). Contribute to it are the negative traditions of the state structure and the functioning of state institutions on the basis of lack of freedom and underdevelopment of civil society, on the basis of investments in pseudo-education, pseudo-education and pseudo-knowledge, in pseudo-science and pseudo-culture. A particularly significant contribution to the negative accumulated human capital can be made by the active part of the nation - its elite, since it is she who determines the policy and strategy of the country's development, leads the nation along the path of either progress, or stagnation (stagnation) or even regression.

Negative human capital requires additional investment in HC to change the essence of knowledge and experience. To change the educational process, to change the innovation and investment potential, to change for the better the mentality of the population and improve its culture. In this case, additional investments are required to compensate for the negative capital accumulated in the past.

Inefficient investments in human capital - investments in inefficient projects or family expenses to improve the quality of human capital components associated with corruption, lack of professionalism, false or suboptimal development ideology, trouble in the family, etc. In fact, these are investments in the negative component of human capital. Inefficient investments, in particular, are: - investments in individuals incapable of learning and acquiring modern knowledge, which give zero or insignificant results; - in an inefficient and corrupt educational process; - into the system of knowledge, which is formed around a false core; - in false or ineffective R&D, projects, innovations.

The accumulated negative human capital begins to fully manifest itself during periods of bifurcations - in conditions of highly non-equilibrium states. In this case, there is a transition to another coordinate system (in particular, to another economic and political space), and the HC can change its sign and magnitude. In particular, during the transition of the country to another economic and political system, with a sharp transition to another, much higher technological level (for enterprises and industries). This means that the accumulated human capital, primarily in the form of accumulated mentality, experience and knowledge, as well as existing education, is not suitable for solving new tasks of a more complex level, tasks within a different development paradigm. And when moving to another coordinate system, to radically different requirements for the level and quality of human capital, the accumulated old human capital becomes negative, becomes a brake on development. And we need new additional investments in the Cheka for its modification and development.

An example of inefficient investments can be investments in the USSR in chemical warfare agents (CW). They were created almost twice as many as in the rest of the world. Billions of dollars have been spent. And almost as much money had to be spent on the destruction and disposal of OV as on their production in the past. Another close example is investment in the production of tanks in the USSR. They were also produced more than in the rest of the world. Military doctrine has changed, tanks now play a smaller role in it, and investment in them has given zero return. They are difficult to use for peaceful purposes and impossible to sell - outdated.

Let us explain once again the essence of the negativity of the unproductive component of human capital. It is determined by the fact that if a person is a carrier of knowledge that does not meet the modern requirements of science, engineering, technology, production, management, the social sphere, etc., then retraining him often requires much more money than training the corresponding employee with zero. Or an invitation from an outside worker. In other words, if the quality of labor is determined by pseudo-knowledge, then a fundamental change in this quality is more expensive than the formation of a qualitatively new labor on a modern educational basis and on the basis of other workers. In this regard, huge difficulties lie, in particular, in the way of creating a Russian innovation system and venture business. The main obstacle here is the negative components of human capital in terms of innovative entrepreneurial ability, mentality, experience and knowledge of Russians in this area. The same problems stand in the way of introducing innovations at Russian enterprises. So far, investments in this area do not give the proper return. The share of the negative component in the accumulated human capital and, accordingly, the effectiveness of investment in human capital in different countries of the world varies greatly. The effectiveness of investments in human capital is characterized by the conversion coefficients of investments in human capital at the country level and for the regions of the Russian Federation.

Positive human capital(creative or innovative) are defined as the accumulated human capital that provides a useful return on investment in it in the development and growth processes. In particular, from investments in improving and maintaining the quality of life of the population, in the growth of innovative potential and institutional capacity. In the development of the education system, the growth of knowledge, the development of science, the improvement of public health. To improve the quality and availability of information. Cheka is an inertial productive factor. Investments in it give a return only after a while. The value and quality of human capital depend primarily on the mentality, education, knowledge and health of the population. In a historically short period of time, one can get a significant return on investment in education, knowledge, health, but not in the mentality that has been formed over the centuries. At the same time, the mentality of the population can significantly reduce the transformation coefficients of investments in HC and even make investments in HC completely inefficient.

Passive human capital- human capital, which does not contribute to the country's development processes, to the innovative economy, aimed mainly at its own consumption of material goods.

The fact that human capital cannot be changed in a short time, especially with a significant amount of negative accumulated human capital, is, in fact, the main problem in the development of the Russian economy from the point of view of the theory of human capital development.

The most important component of human capital is labor, its quality and productivity. The quality of labor, in turn, is determined by the mentality of the population and the quality of life. Labor in Russia, unfortunately, has been and remains traditionally of low quality (that is, the products of Russian enterprises, with the exception of raw materials and primary products from it, are uncompetitive in world markets, productivity and labor intensity are low). The energy consumption of Russian products, depending on the industry, is two to three times higher than in countries with efficient industries. And labor productivity is several times lower than in developed countries. Low-productivity and low-quality labor significantly reduces the accumulated Russian HC and reduces its quality.

Methods for assessing the value of human capital

There are various methodological approaches to calculating the cost of human capital. J. Kendrick proposed a costly method for calculating the cost of human capital - based on statistical data, calculate the accumulation of investments in a person. This technique has proved to be convenient for the United States, where there are extensive and reliable statistical data. J. Kendrick included in investments in the Cheka the costs of the family and society for raising children until they reach working age and obtaining a certain specialty, for retraining, advanced training, health care, labor migration, etc. He also included investments in housing, household durables, stocks of goods in households, expenditures on research and development. As a result of the calculations, he obtained that human capital in the 1970s accounted for more than half of the accumulated national wealth of the United States (excluding public investment). The Kedrick method made it possible to evaluate the accumulation of human capital at its full "replacement cost". But it did not give the possibility of calculating the "net value" of human capital (minus its "wear and tear"). This method did not contain a methodology for separating from the total amount of costs a part of the costs used for the reproduction of human capital, for its real accumulation. In the work of J. Minser, the contribution of education and the duration of labor activity to human capital is assessed. On the basis of the US statistics of the 1980s, Mincer obtained dependences of the effectiveness of the human capital on the number of years of general education, vocational training, and the age of the worker.

The FRASCAT methodology is based on detailed information in the United States on the costs of science since 1920. The methodology takes into account the time lag between the period of R&D and the period of their implementation in accumulated human capital as an increase in the stock of knowledge and experience. The average life of this type of capital was assumed to be 18 years. The calculation results were close to the results of other researchers. The calculation algorithm was as follows. 1. Total current spending on science (for basic research, applied research, R&D). 2. Accumulation for the period. 3. Changes in stocks. 4. Consumption for the current period. 5. Gross capital formation. 6. Net accumulation. International economic and financial institutions show constant interest in the problem of human capital. Economic and Social Council of the United Nations (ECOSOC) back in the 1970s. prepared a document on the strategy for the further development of mankind, where the problem of the role and importance of the human factor in global economic development was raised. In this study, methods were created for calculating some components of the human capital: the average life expectancy of one generation, the duration of the active labor period, the net balance of the labor force, the family life cycle, etc. The cost of human capital included the cost of educating, training and training new workers, the cost of advanced training , the cost of lengthening the period of labor activity, losses due to diseases, mortality, etc.

A significant contribution to the development of the expansionary concept of national wealth (taking into account the contribution of the CHK) was made by the analysts of the World Bank, who published a series of papers substantiating this concept. The World Bank methodology summarizes the results and methods for assessing the human capital of other schools and authors. The WB methodology, in particular, takes into account the accumulated knowledge and other components of the human capital.

Sources of human capital are selected by grouping the costs for the relevant areas. These are science, education, culture and art, healthcare and information support.

These sources must be supplemented with the following: investments in the security of the population and entrepreneurs - ensure the accumulation of all other components of human capital, ensure the realization of the creative and professional potential of a person, ensure the maintenance and growth of the quality of life; investments in the training of the society's elite; investment in entrepreneurial capacity and entrepreneurial climate - public and private investment in small business and venture capital. Investments in creating conditions for maintaining and developing entrepreneurial ability ensure its implementation as an economic productive resource of the country; investment in raising children; investment in changing the mentality of the population in a positive direction is an investment in the culture of the population, which determines the effectiveness of human capital; investments in institutional services to the population - the country's institutions should contribute to the disclosure and implementation of the creative and professional abilities of the population, improve the quality of life of the population, especially in terms of reducing bureaucratic pressure on it; investments in knowledge associated with the invitation of specialists, creative people and other talented and highly professional people from other countries, which significantly increase human capital; investments in the development of economic freedom, including freedom of labor migration.

The results of calculating the human capital of Russia and the CIS countries based on the cost method using the algorithm of the World Bank specialists are given in the works. Estimates of the components of the human capital for the costs of the state, families, entrepreneurs and various funds were used. They make it possible to determine the current annual costs of society for the reproduction of Russian human capital. To assess the value of real savings, the authors of the work used the calculation of the “true savings” indicator according to the methodology of the World Bank specialists.

The human capital of most countries exceeds half of the accumulated national wealth (with the exception of the OPEC countries). This reflects the high level of development of these countries. The HC percentage is significantly affected by the cost of natural resources. In particular, for Russia, the share of the cost of natural resources is large.

It should be noted that the above method for assessing human capital by costs, which is quite correct for developed countries with efficient state systems and efficient economies, gives a significant error for developing countries and countries with economies in transition. There are certain difficulties in the comparative assessment of the cost of HC in different countries. The human capital of an underdeveloped country and a developed country has a very different productivity per unit of capital, a very different level and quality.

The growing income gap between people with and without world-class higher education is pushing for this. According to 1990 data, Americans with elementary education had a total lifetime income of $756,000; . High pay for skilled and intellectual labor is one of the main incentives for obtaining knowledge in developed countries and the main factor in their development.

In turn, the high image of intellectual work, its great importance for the knowledge economy, generates powerful synergistic effects of strengthening the total intelligence of the country, industries, corporations, and ultimately, the total human capital of the country. Hence the huge advantages of the developed countries of the world and the problems for countries with catching up economies trying to join their ranks.

Human capital is the main factor in the formation of the "knowledge economy"

All these provisions are included in one form or another (often truncated and scholastic) both in the federal innovation strategy and in regional innovation strategies, programs and laws.

In essence, the understanding of what needs to be done to create a national IP from the point of view of the theory and experience of developed countries has matured at all levels of government (among those who write programs and strategies). However, the real progress in solving the problem is insignificant.

The creative core, the engine of IP and the economy is venture business. Venture business is by definition risky and highly profitable (if successful). And in this case, the participation of the state as a regulator and investor is generally accepted. Some of the risks are assumed by the state.

emergence theories of human capital was due to the need for a deeper understanding of the action of factors of production, in particular the nature of the unusually high share of changes in total output, not explained by the quantitative increase in the factors of production used - labor and capital, as well as the need to offer a universal interpretation of the phenomenon of income inequality.

The economic approach to human behavior has become widespread thanks to two Nobel laureates - T. Schultz and G. Becker. The concept was introduced into scientific circulation "human capital" as a set of qualities, skills, abilities and knowledge of a person used by him for production (for income) or consumer purposes. This capital is called human because it is embodied in the personality of man; it is capital because it is either a source of future income, or future consumption, or both.

Human capital, like physical capital, is a durable good, but it can become morally obsolete, physically wear out, and it can become morally obsolete even before its physical wear and tear occurs, its value can rise and fall depending on changes in the supply of complementary (mutually complementary) production factors and in the demand for their joint products.

The difference between human capital and physical capital is inseparability from the carrier. The bearer of human capital itself cannot be bought and sold, at least in modern society. It can only be rented, ie. engage in work under an employment contract.

The following types of human capital.

Total human capital- this is knowledge and skills, regardless of where they were obtained, they can be used in other jobs.

Specific human capital - it is knowledge and skills that have value where they are acquired.

The production of general human capital is provided by the system of formal education, including general and special education, which improves the quality, increases the level and stock of human knowledge. Specific human capital is formed by spending on training to train workers directly at the workplace.

Human capital can be positive or negative.

Positive human capital defined as accumulated human capital that provides a useful return on investment.

Negative human capital The portion of accumulated human capital that does not provide any useful return on investment.

The accumulation of human capital depends on the human potential available in a given society. To evaluate it, the currently widely used human development index(HDI), which characterizes different aspects of the development of society. The HDI of a country or region reflects the three leading factors of life: income, longevity, education.

Theory of human capital

The theory of human capital is based on the achievements of institutional theory, neoclassical theory, neo-Keynesianism and other economic theories that recognize the fact that people are the same capital for society as machines. The theory of human capital states that where the quality and quantity of human capital are higher, financial and physical capitals are respectively concentrated. And where low-quality human capital has been formed over the centuries, even a large amount of it will not help.

A special role in the development of the theory of human capital belongs to the American scientist, Nobel Prize winner G. Becker, whose contribution is to strengthen its theoretical justification from the standpoint of microeconomic analysis and significantly expand the possibilities of its practical application.

Historical reference

Gary Becker was born in 1930 in Potstown (Pennsylvania). After graduating from Princeton University in 1951, he worked at Princeton and Columbia Universities. He received his doctorate in Chicago in 1955. After 1969, he was a professor at the University of Chicago and a member of the Hoover Institution for Revolution, War and Peace at Stanford University. As a professor of economics and sociology at the University of Chicago, in 1992. Becker was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for "extending the scope of microeconomic analysis to a range of aspects of human behavior and interaction, including non-market behavior."

G. Becker became the founder of a whole family of new sections of economic theory - the economics of discrimination, the theory of human capital, the economics of crime, the economics of the household, etc. Becker's research in the field of economic analysis of the family was called the "new theory of consumption" ( new theory of consumption).

G. Becker developed the microeconomic foundations of the theory of human capital in his fundamental work in 1962. Human Capital. The model formulated in it became the basis for all subsequent research in this area. Any worker in Becker's view can be considered as a combination of one unit of simple labor and a certain amount of "human capital" embodied in it, respectively, his wages (income) - as a combination of the market price of one hundred simple labor and income from investments invested in a person.

The total of direct monetary costs for education and income lost during the time spent on education is investment in human capital. Becker substantiated the possibility of calculating the profitability of such investments both from the standpoint of an individual and society as a whole, considering this process by analogy with the rates of return on capital.

To assess the economic efficiency of education for the worker himself, the additional income from higher education is determined as follows: the income of workers with secondary general education was deducted from the income of those who graduated from college. Education is profitable for the worker if the difference between the additional income and the real cost of the costs is positive.

Thus, the rates of return act as a regulator of the distribution of investments between different types and levels of education. High rates of return indicate underinvestment, low rates indicate overinvestment.

The American scientist, Nobel laureate T. Schultz1, studying the problems of economic recovery after the war, came to the conclusion that the speed of recovery in different countries was associated with the health and education of the population. Schultz proved that human capital has the necessary features of a productive nature, is able to accumulate and reproduce. Education makes people more productive, and good health care keeps the investment in education and the opportunity to produce.

T. Schultz and G. Becker are credited with popularizing the idea of ​​human capital, their efforts gave impetus to numerous studies and initiated vigorous activity to motivate investments in vocational and technical education by international financial institutions.

The economic growth of the state can be increased by financing various sectors of the economy: human capital, the quality of the workforce, culture and infrastructure. One of the most important tasks of the country is the direct accumulation of spiritual, material and intellectual abilities of a person. The main purpose of the country's spending is precisely investing in human capital. To increase the significant opportunities of society, it is necessary to increase the potential of each member of society, by increasing the potential, we will achieve a dynamic rate of economic growth. The development of human capital in Russia involves:

• - creating quality conditions for the development and improvement of the abilities of each person, improving the living conditions of Russian citizens;
• - increasing the competitiveness of human capital.

At present, a lot depends on the degree of human capital formation, including economic growth.

Human capital is the knowledge and skills learned by a person, which play a very important role for him in labor productivity.

The formation of human capital can be grouped into the following groups: institutional, socio-demographic, integration, socio-mental, environmental, economic, production.

In order to ensure the implementation of functions in terms of the formation of human capital in Russia, the following is guaranteed:

• - increasing the availability of housing for citizens through mortgage mechanisms;
• - accessibility of the consumer lending market;
• - promoting the improvement of the quality of life and personal well-being;
• - Assistance in facilitating pension insurance mechanisms.

The conceptual model of human capital formation is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - The concept of the human capital formation model

The formation of human capital is a process of increasing the productive qualities of the workforce, providing a high level of education and skill. For the long-term economic growth of the country, the formation of human capital is of decisive importance. The interaction of people with each other affects the dissemination of knowledge.

On average, the process of forming human capital takes approximately 15-20 years, this most often leads to a high level of several generations of people within the country.

The leading role in the formation of human capital is assigned to the sphere of culture, which is due to the following circumstances:

• - transition to a more advanced type of economic development;
• - development of the market of services in the field of culture.

Human capital is formed from childhood and is considered formed at the age of 23-25. Every child at the age of 3-4 years has a culture of completely free access to any information. The development of a child's abilities gives him the opportunity to freely manage his talents, to put as many concepts, skills, and abilities into his toolkit as possible. The development of the child is influenced by the results of his education, which later may affect the development of the labor market. The amount of human capital acquired in the learning process depends on innate abilities. The main period for the formation of human capital is the age from 13 to 23 years. This is a period of hormonal explosion, puberty, when nature gives a growing body a surge of tremendous energy. This energy must be transformed (sublimated) at the stadium in order to improve health, on the student bench and in the theater, in order to receive education and culture, learn to set and achieve goals in life, and overcome obstacles. A person can become a skilled worker by acquiring human capital, which is characterized by a high content of knowledge, contributes to innovation and the development of new ideas. The formed human capital provides a person with a stable income, status in society, self-sufficiency.

A feature of the process of forming human capital is that:

• - life expectancy makes the acquisition of human capital relatively more attractive to people of any ability level;
• - increased innate abilities facilitate the acquisition of human capital.

Knowledge and skills embodied in a person are difficult to separate from human health, which also determines labor productivity. Public health policy is the key to effective human capital formation. Access to medical care and proper nutrition increase life expectancy and help people become more efficient at work. As the life expectancy of the population increases, it is beneficial for society to use the experience and skill of people, which allows them to do their job more efficiently.

The basis for the formation of human capital is the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. The formation of skills is becoming a priority for the country's economic development. Education is an important tool for building human capital. Education contributes to the improvement of the quality of life of people and the exercise by them of their civil rights and obligations. Education enriches a person's life by developing cognitive and social skills and informing people about their civic rights and responsibilities.

Workers with higher education are more productive than those with secondary education. Workers with a secondary education are more productive than those with a primary education, and workers with a primary education are more productive than those with no education.

Educated people are more skilled and capable of doing their job effectively, have a wider arsenal of tools to solve problems and overcome difficulties. They are also better suited to more demanding jobs, which are often associated with higher wages and greater economic benefits.

For well-being, human well-being, the formation and accumulation of human capital is the main goal of the state's economic policy. State forms of education are one of the most important means of forming human capital among the low-income strata of the population. People from low-income segments of the population, having no access to physical and financial resources, while having a high cost of their own human capital, acquire the opportunity to earn and influence the level and quality of life.

Countries can invest in public schools as well as adult education to reap these benefits and also help build human capital.

Building human capital through education and training encourages investment, stimulates the development and deployment of new technologies, and increases productivity per worker. However, the relationships between education, inequality, human capital creation, and economic development and growth are complex and often unique to a country's context.

The accumulation of human capital precedes economic growth and serves as the basis for economic growth. The process of human capital accumulation is an investment in education and training. Investing in education is a tool that influences the labor income of people's life cycle. The degree of accumulation of human capital varies by culture, country, region of residence of the holder of human capital. Human capital can accumulate until a person retires. The accumulation of human capital, being endogenous, responds to incentives associated with changes in technological knowledge. Human capital accumulation tends endogenously to zero some time before retirement. Older workers have low motivation for professional training (retraining).

Developed countries have more financial resources to invest in human capital accumulation. In less developed countries, labor productivity is very low. To increase this potential, there is a need for the formation of human capital. In developing countries, the formation of human capital is carried out by the provision of public services for the introduction of new production methods and the creation of an education system.

The development of human capital occurs through the creation of comfortable living conditions: income growth, good roads, landscaped yards, modern medical and educational services, as well as a cultural environment.

The state of human capital in the least developed countries is reflected in the indicators of the Human Capital Index, related to the level of education, health and nutrition:

• - percentage of the population that is undernourished;
• - mortality rate among children under five years of age;
• - general indicator of children's education in secondary school;
• is the adult literacy rate.

The complementarity of human and physical capital in the economy leads to an acceleration of investment in human and physical capital in the long run.

Along with the priority development of human capital and the service economy, the most important sector for the implementation of knowledge, employment and income generation in the next 10-15 years will be the basic industries, transport, construction and the agricultural sector. It is in these sectors that Russia has significant competitive advantages, but it is here that major barriers to growth and efficiency gaps have accumulated. Intensive technological renewal of all basic sectors of the economy, based on new information nano- and biotechnologies, is the most important condition for the success of innovative socially oriented development and the success of the country in global competition.

Increasing the productive qualities of the labor force can be increased by providing a higher level of education and skills.

The formation of human capital increases the income, level and quality of life of people, and is also an important factor in improving labor efficiency.